THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 


LIBRARY 

630.7 

M70b 

mo.  169-185 


cop.  2 


ibfilCULTUiUl 

IHW 


NON  CIRCULATING 


CHECK  FOR  UNBOUND 
CIRCULATING  COPY, 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


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to'bO.'J 

*no~C~ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
. BULLETIN  169  - 


PROFITABLE  TOMATO 
FERTILIZERS 


Tomatoes  on  stony  Ozark  soil:  On  left,  no  fertilizer;  on  right,  125  lbs.  per 

acre  5-8-0  fertilizer  applied 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
MARCH,  1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
SAM  SPARROW,  Chairman,  C.  B.  ROLEINS, 

Kansas  City  Columbia 

JOHN  H.  BRADEEY, 

Kennett 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL, 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

March,  1920 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  A.  M. 

Emory  M.  Roller 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

E.  H.  Lehmann,  B.  S.  in  A.  E. 

Mack  M.  Jones 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Ray  E.  Miller,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

J.  H.  LonGwEll,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  E.  Maneval,  Ph.  D. 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 
A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  C.  Dahlberg,  M.  S. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Percy  Werner,  Jr.,  A.  M. 

W.  H.  E.  Reed,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

E.  M.  McDonald,  B.  S. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

R.  M.  Green,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Ph.  D. 

H.  F.  Major,  B.  S.  A. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S.  H. 

H.  G.  SwartwouT,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

G.  W.  Hervey,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connoway,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 
R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
J.  G.  Babb,  A.  M.,  Secretary 
E.  H.  Hughes,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Dean 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 
George  Reeder,  Director  Weather  Bureau 
Miss  Bertha  Hite,1  Seed  Testing  Laboratory 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 


Hn  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


jam  2 6*29  Anelt 


b-Bo.f 
77]  7o  / 

AOO  . 

i */L** 

Profitable  Tomato  Fertilizers 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr. 


About  10,000  acres  of  tomatoes  are  grown  for  canning  pur- 
poses in  Missouri  each  year,  and  many  more  are  grown  for  mar- 
ket and  home  use.  The  larger  part  of  the  acreage  grown  for  can- 
ning is  on  the  gravelly  loam  soils  of  the  “Ozark”  region  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state,  where  there  are  many  canning  factories. 
In  this  region,  tomatoes  of  the  finest  canning  quality  are  pro- 
duced, being  unexcelled  in  color,  flavor  and  solidity  of  fruit.  How- 
ever, the  yields  have  been  in  many  cases  too  small  to  be  profit- 
able, ranging  from  one  to  three  tons  to  the  acre,  depending  upon 
the  season.  In  the  belief  that  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  might 
be  the  means  of  growing  larger  and  more  profitable  crops,  the 
tests  reported  in  this  bulletin  were  undertaken  in  the  spring  of 
1919,  in  cooperation  with  ten  tomato  growers,  seven  of  whom 
were  located  on  typical  Ozark  soils.  The  objects  were  to  deter- 
mine the  effect  of  different  commercial  fertilizers  and  mixtures 
of  the  same,  as  well  as  of  stable  manure,  on  the  yield  and  time  of 
maturity  of  the  tomato  crop.  Much  credit  is  due  the  growers 
who  carried  out  these  tests,  for  their  careful  work  in  handling  the 
plots  and  harvesting  the  fruit. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TESTS 


l 


One  test  was  located  in  Livingston  County,  two  in  St.  Louis 
County,  one  in  Green  County,  three  in  Newton  County,  and  three 
in  Howell  County.  Each  test  consisted  of  a series  of  eight  plots 
which  received  the  same  treatment  in  each  test.  Each  plot  con- 
sisted of  one  hundred  plants,  or*  about  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  acre, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  three  tests  in  Howell  County,  in  which 
the  plots  were  one-eighth  acre  in  size.  The  fertilizers  used  were 
prepared  by  the  Department  of  Horticulture  and  distributed  to 
the  growers  early  in  the  spring.  The  site  of  each  test  was  se- 
lected with  a view  to  uniformity  of  soil,  being  in  each  case  lo- 
cated in  a large  field  of  tomatoes.  The  fertilizers  were  applied 
and  plants  set  under  the  personal  supervision  of  the  writer.  Fer- 
tilizers were  applied  just  before  setting  the  plants,  by  drilling 
into  the  row  and  mixing  the  fertilizer  with  the  soil.  Notes  were 
taken  on  the  plants  in  each  test  the  latter  part  of  July,  just  be- 
fore the  fruit  began  to  ripen.  The  fruit  was  gathered  regularly 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  169 


by  each  grower,  the  weight  of  fruit  at  each  picking  being  recorded 
for  each  plot. 

FERTILIZERS  USED 

The  first  and  last  plots  in  each  test  were  checks,  no  fertilizer 
or  manure  being  applied  to  them.  The  composition  of  the  fertili- 
zers used,  and  rate  of  application  were  as  follow : 

Plot  1. — 'No  fertilizer. 

Plot  2. — 250  pounds  to  the  acre:  4.6%  Nitrogen,  8%  phosphorous, 

7%  potash,  made  up  of  500  pounds  dried  blood  (11%  N), 
250  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  (15%  N),  1000  pounds  acid  phos- 
phate (16%  P),  and  276  pounds  sulphate  of  potash  (51%  K). 
A total  of  2026  pounds. 

Plot  3. — 250  pounds  to  the  acre:  5%  Nitrogen,  8%  phosphorous, 

made  up  of  500  pounds  dried  blood  (11%  N),  300  pounds 
nitrate  of  soda  (15%  N),  1000  pounds  acid  phosphate  (16% 
P),  200  pounds  filler,  a total  of  2000  pounds. 

Plot  4. — 150  pounds  to  the  acre:  Nitrate  of  soda  (15%  N). 

Plot  5. — 150  pounds  to  the  acre:  Sulphate  of  potash  (51%  K). 

Plot  6. — 250  pounds  to  the  acre:  Acid  phosphate  (16%  P). 

Plot  7. — 8 tons  to  the  acre:  Rotten  stable  manure. 

Plot  8. — No  fertilizer. 

FIELD  NOTES  ON  TESTS 

Phillip  Lochhaas,  Valley  Park,  St.  Louis  County. — Plants 
were  set  May  12  on  poor,  sticky,  red  clay  soil  on  which  mulched 
Irish  potatoes  were  grown  last  year.  The  variety  used  was  June 
Pink.  On  June  25  the  plants  in  Plots  1,  4,  and  8 were  rather  small 
and  spindling  with  no  fruit  set,  while  in  Plots  2,  3,  6 and  7 the 
plants  were  large,  dark  green,  and  full  of  green  fruit.  In  Plot  5, 
which  received  potash,  the  plants  were  intermediate  in  size. 

Charles  N.  Daub,  Valley  Park,  St.  Louis  County. — Plants  were 
set  May  12,  on  rather  poor  clay  loa^m  hillside,  previously  in  black- 
berries. The  variety  used  was  Livingston’s  Beauty.  On  June  25,  the 
plants  in  the  two  unfertilized  check  plots,  1 and  8,  were  only  me- 
dium sized,  as  compared  to  plants  in  the  fertilized  plots,  2,  3,  6 
and  7.  Plants  in  plots  4 and  5 were  only  slightly  better  than  the 
checks. 

Henry  C.  McElhaney,  Brookline,  Green  County. — Plants  were 
set  May  29,  a week  after  the  fertilizers  had  been  applied.  A sep- 
arate test  was  made  of  2-12-1  fertilizer,  applied  (a)  five  days  be- 
fore setting  plants,  and  (b)  as  a top  dressing  ten  days  after  set- 
ting. On  July  16  there  was  a marked  difference  in  the  plants  on 
these  plots,  the  plants  being  thirty-three  per  cent  larger  and  hav- 


Profitable  Tomato  Fertilizers  5 


ing  a larger  set  of  fruit  in  the  case  where  fertilizer  was  applied 
five  days  before  setting.  The  following  gives  a summary  of  the 
yields  of  fruit  from  these  two  plots. 


Fertilizer  Applied 

Yield  per 

Gain  over 

Percent 

acre 

unfertilized  check 

gain 

5 days  before  setting  

14,860  lbs. 

3,820  lbs.  per  acre 

34.6 

10  days  after  setting  

12,200  lbs.. 

1,260  lbs.  per  acre 

11.4 

The  soil  in  this  test  was  red  clay  loam,  free  from  rock.  Clover 
sod  and  stable  manure  had  been  plowed  under  the  preceding  fall. 
The  soil  was  thoroly  prepared,  and  the  crop  well  cultivated. 

It  is  noticeable  from  Table  1 that  the  per  cent  of  increase  in 
yields  caused  by  the  various  fertilizers  was  less  in  this  test,  where 
the  soil  was  well  manured  and  cultivated,  than  in  the  case  of 
some  other  tests  on  poorer  soils.  The  variety  used  was  Greater 
Baltimore. 

On  July  16,  the  plants  in  the  check  plots  were  of  medium  size 
and  were  medium  green  in  color,  with  no  fruit  set.  The  plants 
in  plots  2,  3 and  6 were  fairly  uniform,  being  150  per  cent  larger 
and  much  stockier  than  the  plants  in  the  check  plots.  Plants  in 
plots  4 and  5 were  very  slightly  superior  to  the  checks. 

C.  R.  Epperson,  Neosho,  Newton  County. — This  test  was  lo- 
cated on  poor,  gravelly  loam  soil  which  was  quite  stony,  and  had 
been  in  tomatoes  the  preceding  year,  with  no  manure  applied  for 
several  years.  Plants  were  set  May  13 ; Livingston  Stone  was  the 
variety  used.  On  July  14  the  plants  in  the  check  plots  were 
small  and  weak,  with  little  fruit  set.  In  plots  2 and  3,  plants  were 
about  one  hundred  per  cent  larger,  and  there  was  considerable 
fruit  set.  Plots  4 and  5 wre  little  better  than  the  checks  while 
plots  6 and  7 were  considerably  larger  and  more  vigorous  than  the 
check  plots. 

F.  E.  Wuerzberger,  Neosho,  Newton  County. — This  land  was 
quite  stony  and  rough,  having  been  recently  cleared  of  trees.  Fer- 
tilizers were  applied  May  24  as  a top  dressing  to  plants  set  sev- 
eral days  before.  The  variety  used  was  Stone.  On  July  14,  the 
plants  in  the  check  plots  were  rather  small,  erect,  spindling,  with 
no  fruit  set.  Plots  2 and  3 bore  large,  dark  green  plants,  well 
branched  and  heavily  set  with  fruit.  Plants  in  plot  4 were  larger 
than  those  in  plots  2 and  3,  but  had  less  fruit  set.  Those  in 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  169 

plot  5 were  medium-sized  plants  with  no  fruit  set.  In  plot  6, 
the  plants  were  almost  as  large  as  in  plots  2 and  3,  and  had  a 
large  number  of  fruit  set. 

William  C.  Grimes,  Nezvtonia,  Newton  County. — This  soil  was 
a medium  sandy  loam  in  fine  condition,  free  of  stone,  had  been  in 
tomatoes  last  year,  and  the  plants  had  been  rather  seriously  af- 
fected with  wilt.  The  fertilizer  plots  were  set  on  May  24,  to  plants 
of  the  Arlington  and  New  Century  varieties,  which  have  been  de- 
veloped for  their  resistance  to  the  wilt  disease.  The  rest  of  the 
six-acre  field  was  set  to  plants  of  ordinary  varieties.  By  August 
17,  a large  proportion  of  these  plants  had  died  from  the  wilt  dis- 
ease, while  the  plants  in  the  fertilizer  plots  which  were  of  the  wilt- 
resistant  varieties  were  ninety-five  per  cent  healthy.  It  was  a 
good  demonstration  of  the  value  of  wilt-resistant  varieties  on  in- 
fected soils.  One  variation  in  this  test  was  that  of  a light  ap- 
plication of  poultry  manure  instead  of  stable  manure  to  plot  7. 
This  plot  produced  the  largest  per  cent  of  increase  in  yield  in 
this  test,  124  per  cent.  On  July  15,  the  plants  in  the  check  plots 
were  only  medium  in  size,  with  little  fruit  set.  In  plots  2,  3,  6 
and  7 the  plants  were  quite  uniform  in  size,  all  being  relatively 
much  larger,  more  fruitful  and  more  vigorous  than  the  plants  on 
the  check  plots.  The  plants  in  plots  4 and  5 were  only  slightly 
larger  than  those  in  the  check  plots. 

W . J.  Rhodes,  Brandsville,  Howell  County. — The  soil  was  a 
gravelly  loam,  quite  stony  in  spots,  but  fairly  fertile.  The  fertili- 
zers were  applied  on  May  24,  and  plants  set  a few  days  after- 
ward. The  variety  used  was  Red  Rock.  On  July  17  the  plants  in 
the  check  plots  were  medium  in  size,  rather  straggling  and  weak, 
with  little  fruit.  Plots  3,  2,  7 and  6 were  relatively  much  larger 
and  more  fruitful  than  the  check  plots.  The  size  and  fruitful- 
ness of  the  plants  in  these  plots  was  in  the  order  mentioned. 
Plots  4 and  5 were  slightly  superior  to  the  check  plots. 

J.  W.  Pierce,  West  Plains,  Hozvell  County. — The  soil  was  a 
clay  loam,  free  of  stone  and  gravel,  in  a fair  state  of  fertility. 
Fertilizers  were  applied  and  the  plants  set  May  21 ; the  variety 
used  was  Matchless.  On  July  17  the  field  was  found  to  be  in  very 
good  condition,  and  striking  differences  were  exhibited  by  the 
plants  in  the  various  fertilizer  plots.  The  plants  in  the  check 
plots  were  medium  sized,  rather  weak  and  spindling,  with  no  fruit 
set.  On  the  other  hand,  the  plants  in  plots  2,  3,  6 and  7 were 


Profitable  Tomato  Fertilizers 


/ 


very  dark  green  and  vigorous,  and  200  per  cent  larger  than  plants 
in  the  check  plots.  Plots  4 and  5 appeared  to  be  somewhat  in- 
ferior to  the  check  plots. 

James  Spence,  Burnham,  Howell  County. — The  soil  was  -a  light 
gravelly  to  stony  loam.  Fertilizers  were  applied  and  plants  set 
June  6,  which  was  rather  late.  The  variety  used  was  Red  Rock. 
On  July  18  the  plants  in  the  check  plots  were  decidedly  weak  and 
small,  while  the  plants  in  plots  2,  3,  6 and  7 were  relatively  much 
larger  and  more  fruitful  than  the  plants  in  the  check  plots.  The 
plants  in  plots  4 and  5 appeared  somewhat  inferior  to  the  checks, 
and  considerable  difficulty  had  been  experienced  in  securing  a 
stand  of  plants  on  these  plots. 

Mrs.  Blanche  Reeder,  Girls  Reform  School,  Chillicothe,  Liv- 
ingston County. — This  test  was  located  on  black  silt  loam,  the  typ- 
ical “corn-belt”  prairie  soil  of  north  Missouri.  This  test  is  particu- 
larly interesting  in  that  the  trend  of  the  results  produced  by  the 
various  fertilizers  here  was  the  same  as  that  secured  on  the  rocky 
and  gravelly  clay  loams  in  the  Ozark  region  of  the  state.  The  fer- 
tilizer was  applied  with  the  fertilizer  drill  on  a corn  planter,  which 
also  served  to  mark  off  the  rows.  Plants  were  set  on  the  same 
day,  May  2,  but  many  had  to  be  reset  afterward  due  to  injury  by 
rains  and  cool  weather.  The  variety  used  was  Bonny  Best,  which 
is  an  early  type  of  tomato.  On  July  11,  the  plants  in  the  check 
plots  were  of  medium  size,  and  bore  a fair  quantity  of  half-grown 
fruit.  Plants  in  the  fertilized  plots,  2,  3 and  6,  were  all  about  the 
same,  being  relatively  much  larger  than  those  in  the  check  plots, 
and  bearing  a heavy  crop  of  fruit  which  was  beginning  to  ripen. 
Plot  7,  receiving  stable  manure,  was  not  quite  so  good  as  the 
best  fertilized  plots,  yet  was  much  superior  to  the  checks. 
Plots  4 and  5 were  somewhat  better  than  the  check  plots. 

RESULTS 

Table  1 presents  a summary  of  the  yields  secured  from  each 
plot  in  each  of  the  ten  tests,  expressed  in  terms  of  pounds  per 
acre.  The  first  column  gives  the  total  yield  for  each  plot,  the 
second  column  gives  the  number  of  pounds  increase  or  decrease 
over  the  adjacent  unfertilized  check  plot,  and  the  third  column 
gives  the  per  cent  gained  by  the  fertilized  plot  over  the  unfertilized 
check  plot.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  yields  produced  on  differ- 
ent plots  receiving  the  same  kinds  and  amounts  of  fertilizer  vary 
considerably,  as  well  as  the  percentage  of  increase.  The  first  point 


Table  1. — Yields  oe  Tomatoes  on  Fertilizer  Plots — 1919.  Expressed  in  Pounds  per  Acre 


Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  169 


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Profitable  Tomato  Fertilizers 


9 


may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  better  land  was  used  in  some 
cases  than  others,  the  season  was  more  favorable,  or  the  picking 
season  was  longer.  The  second  point,  that  of  variation  in  per 
cent  of  increase  produced  by  the  same  fertilizer,  may  be  explained 
by  the  fact  that  on  the  poorer  lands  fertilizers  produce  a greater 
per  cent  of  increase  in  yield  than  upon  fairly  good  land.  The  tests 


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of  H.  H.  McElhaney  and  W.  C.  Grimes  illustrate  this  point,  for 
these  tests  were  located  on  very  good  land  in  the  best  of  physical 
condition.  The  increases  produced  by  fertilizers  on  these  soils 
were  not  so  great  as  upon  some  of  the  poorer  and  more  rocky 
soils.  Yet  the  general  trend  of  the  results  secured  in  all  ten  of 
these  tests  is  about  the  same,  despite  the  differences  in  soils  and 
other  factors. 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  169 


Taking  the  average  of  the  ten  tests  as  a basis,  well  rotted 
stable  manure  at  the  rate  of  eight  tons  to  the  acre  caused  the 
greatest  percentage  increase  in  yield,  followed  closely  by  the  4.6-8-7 
and  the  5-8-0  mixture.  The  average  difference  in  yield  caused 
by  these  two  mixtures  is  insignificant,  indicating  that  the  omis- 
sion of  potash  from  the  fertilizer  did  not  seriously  affect  the  yield 
of  tomatoes,  generally  speaking.  In  six  cases  the  mixture  contain- 
ing potash  caused  a greater  percentage  increase,  and  in  four  cases 
the  “no-potash”  fertilizer  caused  the  greater  percentage  of  in- 
crease. 

Nitrate  of  soda  caused  practically  no  increase,  on  the  average. 
In  four  tests,  nitrate  of  soda  caused  a slight  increase,  and  in  five 
tests  the  nitrate  caused  a decrease  in  yield.  This  decrease  was 
probably  due  to  injury  to  the  plants  soon  after  setting,  by  the 
strong  salt  coming  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the  tender  plants. 

Sulphate  of  potash  alone  caused  a slight  increase  in  yield  on 
the  average  of  the  ten  tests,  producing  an  increase  in  seven  tests 
and  a decrease  in  three.  This  indicates  that  on  the  soils  used  in 
these  tests,  potash  is  not  likely  to  be  an  important  element  in 
fertilizing  tomatoes. 

Acid  phosphate  produced  a substantial  increase  in  every  test 
except  one,  where  a small  decrease  resulted.  This  decrease  was 
probably  due  to  the  proximity  of  trees  as  the  plot  in  question  ap- 
peared very  promising  when  noted  in  July.  The  indications  are 
that  phosphorous  is  the  most  important  single  element  of  plant 
food  in  fertilizing*  tomatoes  in  Missouri. 

COST  OF  FERTILIZERS  AND  NET  PROFIT 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  pages  that  commercial  fer- 
tilizers may  markedly  increase  the  yield  of  tomatoes.  What  does 
it  cost  to  produce  the  larger  crop,  and  does  it  pay  to  grow  a larger 
crop  with  the  aid  of  fertilizers?  The  extra  expense  includes  the 
cost  of  the  fertilizer,  the  cost  of  application,  and  the  cost  of  pick- 
ing the  extra  quantity  of  fruit  produced.  These  items  are  esti- 
mated on  the  basis  of  1920  prices  for  fertilizers  as  furnished  by 
the  Department  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  allowing  5 cents 
a bushel  for  picking.  The  price  of  the  fruit  is  placed  at  $15  a ton. 
The  results  are  shown  in  Table  2. 


Profitable  Tomato  Fertilizers 


11 


Table  2. — Extra  Cost  of  Growing  Tomatoes  with  Fertilizers,  and  Net 
Returns  Based  on  Average  oe  Ten  Tests  in  1919. 


Plot 

No. 

Fertilizer 

used 

Amt. 

ap- 

plied 

per 

acre 

Cost  of 
fertilizer 
per  acre 

Cost  of 
appli- 
cation 
per  A. 

Extra 
cost  of 
picking 
increased 
yield 

Total 
extra 
expense 
by  using 
fertilizer 

Yield, 
Tons 
per  *acre 

Value  of 
the 

yield  per 
acre 

Net  gain 
per  acre  from 
use  of  fer- 
tilizer 

1 & 8 
2 

None 
4. 6-8-7 

250 

$9.00 

$1.00 

$5.62 

$15.62 

2.86 

5.67 

$42.50 

85.00 

$26.48 

3 

5-8-0 

250 

7.00 

1.00 

5.08 

13.08 

5.40 

81.00 

25.02 

4 

Nitrate 
of  soda 

150 

6.50 

1.00 

.18 

7.68 

2.93 

44.00 

-5.78 

5 

Sulphate 
of  potash 

150 

11.50 

1.00 

.30 

12.80 

3.1 

46.50 

-9.26 

6 

Acid 

phos- 

phate 

250 

2.75 

1.00 

4.75 

8.50 

5.29 

79.40 

28.00 

7 

Stable 

manure 

8 tons 

12.00 

2.00 

5.82 

19.82 

5.77 

86.60 

23.88 

NOTE:  — ” indicates  loss. 


It  is  seen  from  this  table,  that  after  deducting  the  cost  of  the 
fertilizer,  cost  of  application,  and  cost  of  picking  the  extra  amount 
of  fruit  produced  by  the  fertilizer,  that  the  acid  phosphate,  the 
4. 6-8-7  mixture,  the  5-8-0  mixture  and  the  stable  manure  plots  af- 
forded substantial  net  gains  per  acre,  in  the  order  named.  Nitrate 
of  soda  alone,  and  sulphate  of  potash  alone,  resulted  in  a loss.  It 
seems  that  high-grade  acid  phosphate  (16%)  is  the  most  economi- 
cal fertilizer  to  use,  altho  a complete  mixed  fertilizer  may  produce 
larger  yields. 

EFFECT  OF  FERTILIZERS  ON  EARLINESS 

One  of  the  most  important  effects  of  fertilizers  observed  in 
these  tests  on  tomatoes  is  the  rapid  early  growth  of  the  plants, 
and  the  early  date  at  which  fruit  begins  to  ripen  on  the  fertilized 
plots.  This  was  very  noticeable  in  every  series  of  fertilizer  tests 
made  in  1919,  as  the  fruit  began  ripening  on  the  plots  fertilized 
with  the  4. 6-8-7  and  5-8-0  mixtures,  as  well  as  acid  phosphate,  long 
before  the  check  plots  came  into  bearing.  The  difference  in  total 
yield  and  earliness  of  fruit  are  shown  graphically  in  the  figure. 
This  is  based  on  the  average  weekly  yields  of  the  check  plots,  the 
complete  fertilizer  and  the  acid  phosphate  plots,  in  the  Pierce, 
McElhaney  and  Grimes  tests.  It  is  seen  from  this  chart  that  the 
check  plots  did  not  begin  heavy  bearing  until  the  week  of  August 
23-30,  while  the  complete  fertilizer  plots  came  into  bearing  the 
week  of  July  26-August  2,  or  four  weeks  earlier  than  the  checks. 
The  acid  phosphate  plots  came  into  heavy  bearing  about  August 
9,  three  weeks  before  the  check  plots.  Both  the  complete  fertili- 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  169 

zers  and  acid  phosphate  plots  reached  the  peak  of  their  bearing 
season  a week  before  the  checks.  After  September  6,  there  is 
little  difference  between  fertilized  and  check  plots,  as  both  de- 
clined rapidly. 

It  may  be  readily  seen  how  important  this  increased  earliness 
of  the  crop  w'ould  be  in  case  of  the  market  grower,  for  the  early 
fruit  has  a higher  market  value  than  does  that  produced  later  in 
the  season.  In  the  case  of  the  cannery  grower,  the  increased  earli- 
ness is  an  advantage,  for  it  distributes  the  season  of  heavy  pick- 
ing over  a period  of  about  six  weeks,  instead  of  three  weeks  in 
the  case  of  the  unfertilized  crop.  This  would  permit  both  the 
grower  and  the  cannery  to  handle  more  tomatoes. 

SUMMARY 

The  complete  fertilizer  produced  a marked  increase  in  yields 
of  tomatoes,  and  the  per  cent  increase  is  greater  on  the  poorer  soils. 

In  these  experiments,  a mixed  fertilizer  containing  no  potash 
produced  practically  as  good  yields  as  the  complete  fertilizer. 

Acid  phosphate  alone  produced  a good  increase  in  yield,  but 
not  as  much  as  the  mixed  fertilizers. 

Nitrate  of  soda  alone  and  sulphate  of  potash  alone,  did  not 
produce  a larg-e  increase  in  any  of  these  tests,  and  in  some  cases 
decreased  yields  thru  injury  to  young  plants. 

Stable  manure  and  poultry  manure  were  found  to  be  excel- 
lent fertilizers  for  tomatoes,  altho  these  materials  did  not  stimu- 
late early  maturity  to  as  great  an  extent  as  did  the  4. 6-8-7  and  5-8-0 
commercial  ferilizers. 

Mixed  fertilizers,  and  acid  phosphates  alone,  produced  a strik- 
ing increase  in  the  amount  of  early  fruit,  the  plants  reaching  quan- 
tity-production four  weeks  earlier  than  plants  on  unfertilized  check 
plots.  It  seems  that  fertilizers  stimulate  plants  to  rapid  growth 
during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  resulting  in  a large  plant, 
capable  of  bearing  many  fruits.  This  is  particularly  important  in 
Missouri,  where  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  is  usually  unfavor- 
able for  plant  growth. 

As  a result  of  the  tests  reported  in  this  bulletin,  it  would 
appear  that  tomato  growers  could  profitably  increase  the  yield  and 
earliness  of  the  crop,  by  the  use  of  at  least  250  pounds  to  the  acre 
of  a commercial  mixed  fertilizer.  It  is  suggested  that  a fertilizer 
analyzing  3 or  4 per  cent  nitrogen  and  10  to  12  per  cent  phosphorous 
be  used  for  tomatoes. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  170 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  FIELD 
CROPS 


Army  Worm  Moth,  twice  natural  size 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
APRIL,  1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

the:  curators  of  the:  university  of  Missouri 

EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

C.  B.  ROEEINS,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Columbia  Kansas  City 

JOHN  H.  BRADLEY, 

Kennett 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

TEIE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

April,  1920 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  A.  M. 

Emory  M.  Roller 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

E.  H.  Lehmann,  B.  S.  in  A.  E- 
Mack  M.  Jones 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Ray  E.  Miller,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

J.  H.  Longwell,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  E.  Maneval,  Ph.  D. 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 
A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  C.  Dahlberg,  M.  S. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Percy  Werner,  Jr.,  A.  M. 

W.  H.  E.  Reed,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D 

E.  M.  McDonald,  B.  S 
C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

JIn  service  of  U.  S 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

R.  M.  Green,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

horticulture 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Ph.  D. 

H.  F.  Major,  B.  S.  A. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S.  H. 

H.  G.  SwarTwouT,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

G.  W.  Hervey,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connoway,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D. 

L-  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 
R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
J.  G.  Babb,  A.  M.,  Secretary 
E.  H.  Hughes,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Dean 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 
George  Reeder,  Director  Weather  Bureau 
Miss  Bertha  Hite,1  Seed  Testing  Laboratory 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 


Department  of  Agriculture. 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops* 


Leonard  Haseman 

Insect  pests  have  done  more  damage  in  Missouri  during  the 
last  few  years  than  in  any  equal  period  in  the  history  of  the  state. 
In  1916  the  Hessian  fly,  in  a dozen  counties  of  Missouri,  cost  the 
farmers  more  than  did  all  hog  cholera  outbreaks  thruout  the  entire 
state. 

In  Missouri  the  two  most  important  field  crops,  corn  and 
wheat,  suffer  most,  tho  other  crops  come  in  for  their  share  of  dam- 
age. In  this  report  only  the  most  important  insect  pests  of  the 
different  crops  will  be  discussed.  Where  necessary  the  records  of 
other  workers  will  be  made  use  of,  tho  as  far  as  possible  original 
records  will  be  given. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  CORN 

Corn  pests  usually  feed  on  grasses  but  very  seldom  on  leg- 
umes. An  effort  should  therefore  be  made  to  rotate  crops  so  that 
the  same  or  similar  crops  will  not  follow  each  other.  If  a rotation 
of  this  kind  cannot  be  practiced  land  should  be  fall  or  winter 
plowed. 

In  the  control  of  insect  pests  of  field  crops  it  is  seldom  ad- 
visable to  use  spray  mixtures.  Most  of  the  pests  can  be  more 
effectively  and  economically  controlled  by  following  proper  farm 
practices.  Where  it  is  necessary,  spray  solutions  and  other  arti- 
ficial remedies  should  be  used  as  cures,  but  prevention  is  always 
better  than  cure.  Crop  rotation,  clean  culture,  fall  and  winter 
plowing,  time  of  sowing  and  cutting  of  crops,  are  all  of  value  in  the 
campaign  against  insect  pests  and  cost  nothing  to  apply. 

Corn  Root  Louse  ( Aphis  maidi-radicis  Forbes). — The  corn 
root  louse  is  largely  a pest  of  corn  in  bottom  land  where  the  soil  is 
loose  and  sandy,  tho  it  may  be  destructive  in  prairie  sections  of  the 
state. 

Description. — The  pest  is  one  of  the  sap-sucking  plant  lice 
which  lives  largely  underground  on  roots  of  corn  and  related 
plants.  It  is  grayish-green  in  color  and  about  the  size  of  a pin- 
head. By  pulling  up  infested  plants  hundreds  will  be  found  at- 
tached to  the  roots. 

*A  reprint  of  Bulletin  134  by  the  same  author.  A few  sections  have  been  revised  in 
keeping  with  more  nearly  complete  information  developed  thru  later  observations. 


4 Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


Life  History. — The  corn  root  louse  winters  in  the  egg  stage 
in  the  nests  of  the  small  cornfield  ant.  The  ants  collect  the  eggs 
in  the  fall  and  store  them  with  their  own  eggs  in  their  nests  under- 
ground. In  the  spring  when  the  eggs  hatch  the  ants  carry  the 
young  lice  to  roots  of  grasses  and  weeds  where  they  feed  and  in- 
crease until  the  corn  crop  comes  on.  The  ants  then  transfer  them 
to  the  roots  of  corn.  During  the  summer  there  are  no  males, 
neither  are  there  true  females,  but  an  asexual  form,  stem-mother, 
gives  birth  to  the  living  young.  The  ants  continue  to  herd  the 
lice  all  summer  and  in  return  feed  on  a sweet  discharge  from  tubes 
on  the  backs  of  the  lice.  The  underground  forms  are  without 
wings,  but  from  time  to  time  winged  forms  emerge  and  fly  to  other 
fields  and  spread  the  infestation.  In  the  fall  true  males  and  fe- 
males appear  and  eggs  are  laid  which  pass  the  winter. 

Injury. — The  injury  is  first  noticed  before  the  corn  is  knee 
high.  The  lice  suck  the  sap  from  the  roots  of  the  corn  causing  it 
to  turn  yellow  and  stop  growing  where  the  attack  is  severe.  In 
less  severe  cases  a partial  crop  matures  tho  the  root  system  is  al- 
ways more  or  less  destroyed. 

Remedies. — This  pest  may  breed  on  the  roots  of  grasses  and 
weeds  so  crop  rotation  will  give  only  partial  relief.  Winter  plow- 
ing of  infested  cornfields  or  sod  will  destroy  the  ant  nests  and 
along  with  them  their  eggs  and  those  of  the  lice.  This  is  the  most 
effective  remedy.  Fertilizers  may  help  to  mature  a crop  in  spite 
of  the  pest  and  close  and  continuous  cultivations  when  the  corn  is 
small  will  help  to  aggravate  the  ant  and  check  the  pest.  Get  rid 
of  the  ant  and  the  louse  is  helpless. 

Corn  Root  Worms  ( Diabrotica  longicornis  Say  and  D.  duo- 
decimpunctata  Oliv.). — There  are  two  forms  of  root  worms,  the  so- 
called  western  and  the  southern  form.  They  are  the  grubs  of  small 
beetles  and  as  the  name  implies  they  feed  in  the  roots  and  base  of 
the  corn  plant. 

Description. — The  root  worms  are  small,  whitish  grubs.  They 
are  very  slender  and  from  one-half  to  nearly  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  long.  When  feeding  they  will  be  found  partly  or  entirely  bur- 
ied in  the  roots  or  base  of  the  young  corn  plant.  The  parent  beetle 
of  the  southern  form  is  yellowish-green  with  twelve  black  spots 
and  looks  much  like  a lady  beetle.  The  parent  of  the  western 
form  is  smaller  than  the  southern  form  and  light  green  in  color. 

Fife  History.  The  parent  of  the  western  form  lays  eggs  large- 
ly in  cornfields  in  the  fall.  In  the  spring  these  eggs  hatch  and  the 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


Wingless  viviparous  female  or 
stem-mother;  about  sixteen  times 
natural  size;  a,  tip  of  abdomen 
still  more  enlarged.  (After 
Forbes) 


Fig.  2. — Corn  Root-louse:  Winged  migratory  stem  mother;  sixteen 
times  natural  size.  (After  Forbes) 


Fig.  3. — Corn-field  Ant:  The  worker 
ant  which  is  the  true  shepherd  of  the 
root-louse;  eight  times  natural  size. 
(After  Forbes) 


Fig.  4. — Western  Corn  Root-worm:  Grub  in  tip  of 

corn  root  showing  the  way  it  feeds;  about  three  times 
natural  size.  (After  Forbes) 


Fig.  5. — Western  Corn  Root-worm:  Adults  bee- 
tle; ten  times  natural  size.  (After  Forbes) 


6 Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


: Parent  ‘ Click-bee-  Fig.  7. — Southern  Corn  Root- 

four  times  natural  worm:  Adult  beetle;  about  six 

(After  Forbes')  times  natural  size.  (After  Forbes) 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


7 


grubs  attack  the  corn.  There  is  but  one  generation  a year.  The 
southern  form  attacks  various  plants  and  the  beetles  hibernate  in 
protected  places  and  appear  early  in  the  summer  to  lay  eggs. 

Injury. — The  injury  to  corn  is  done  entirely  by  the  grubs  un- 
derground. This  injury  may  completely  destroy  the  crop.  The 
injury  to  the  root  system  saps  the  vitality  of  the  crop  and  later 
causes  it  to  fall  badly.  During  the  summer  the  parent  beetles  may 
attack  the  blossoms  of  various  plants  causing  considerable  injury 
in  case  of  melons  and  similar  plants. 

Remedies. — The  western  form  is  controlled  by  crop  rotation. 
Most  of  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall  in  infested  cornfields.  If  corn 
is  not  planted  in  the  same  field  the  next  year  the  pest  is  starved  out. 
The  southern  form  is  less  easily  controlled.  Crop  rotation  com- 
bined with  winter  destruction  of  harboring  places  and  late  planting 
of  corn  will  usually  control  the  pest. 

Wire  Worms  ( Elatcridae) . — There  are  a great  many  kinds  of 
wire  worms  but  their  habits  are  similar  and  may  be  considered  as 
a single  pest. 

Description. — The  wire  worms  are  the  grubs  of  small,  oblong, 
brownish  beetles  known  as  click-beetles  or  “snapping-bugs.”  The 
grubs  are  brownish  in  color  and  as  the  name  implies  are  hard  and 
and  as  large  around  as  a small  straw.  They  have  legs  but  crawl 
wiry.  They  vary  in  size,  but  are  usually  an  inch  or  less  in  length 
with  difficulty. 

Life  History. — This  pest  may  require  from  one  to  three  years 
to  mature.  The  eggs  are  deposited  largely  in  sod  and  the  grubs 
feed  on  the  roots  of  grasses  until  mature,  unless  the  sod  be  plowed 
under  and  some  other  crop  such  as  corn  or  wheat  follows  to  be  in- 
jured by  the  grubs.  The  parent  beetles  do  not  injure  field  crops. 

Injury. — The  injury  to  corn  is  usually  done  just  as  the  corn  is 
sprouting  or  soon  thereafter.  The  grub  may  bore  into  the  soft 
sprouting*  grain  destroying  the  germs  or  it  may  eat  off  the  roots  or 
bore  into  the  base  of  the  stalk  after  the  plant  has  started.  The  in- 
jury to  wheat  and  other  crops  is  of  a similar  nature. 

Remedies. — The  wire  worms  are  rather  difficult  to  control  tho 
by  following  out  a careful  system  of  crop  rotation  combined  with 
fall  or  winter  plowing  the  pest  can  be  kept  in  check.  A field  should 
not  be  kept  in  sod  too  long  and  such  crops  as  wheat  and  corn 
should  not  follow  sod  if  it  is  known  to  be  infested.  The  pest  does 
not  seem  to  thrive  in  fields  when  legumes  are  grown,  so  it  is  usually 


8 Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


Fig.  11. — Whitegrub:  a,  Adult  June  beetle;  b,  egg;  c,  whitegrub  or  grub  worn 
e,  corn  plant  with  roots  injured  and  grub  and  pupa  in  earthen  cells 


; d,  pupa; 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


9 


safe  to  follow  clover  with  corn  or  wheat.  Treating  the  seed  corn  to 
protect  it  from  the  pest  is  not  effective. 

White  Grubs  or  Grub  Worms  (Lachnosterna  spp.) . — These  are 
the  young  of  the  brown  May  beetles  or  so-called  “June  Bugs”  and, 
like  the  wire  worms,  usually  breed  in  sod  where  they  may  become 
so  abundant  as  to  destroy  much  of  it.  When  the  sod  is  plowed  un- 
der in  the  spring  and  is  followed  by  corn,  that  crop  also  suffers. 

Description. — This  pest  is  best  known  in  the  grub  or  larval 
stage  and  is  commonly  called  the  grub  worm.  There  are  many 
species,  but  all  have  similar  habits.  When  found  they  are  usually 
curled  up,  whitish  or  yellowish  in  color  with  a brown  or  black  head 
and  with  dark  food  usually  showing  thru  the  body.  The  parent 
beetles  are  brown  or  blackish  and  are  common  in  May  and  June,  com- 
ing into  lighted  rooms  at  night,  buzzing  about  until  they  strike  some- 
thing and  fall  heavily  to  the  floor. 

Life  History. — This  pest  may  also  require  from  one  to  three 
years  to  mature  depending  upon  the  species.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
the  soil,  usually  in  pastures  and  meadows.  On  hatching  these  eggs 
produce  the  grubs  which  feed  until  mature.  They  pupate  in  May 
and  June  and  come  out  as  beetles  to  lay  eggs  for  the  next  gener- 
ation. 

Injury. — The  grubs  feed  underground  on  the  roots  of  grasses 
and  various  other  crops  often  completely  eating  away  the  root  sys- 
tem. We  have  found  the  injury  to  be  so  great  that  in  many  cases 
the  sod  could  be  stripped  from  the  ground  and  rolled  up  like  a 
carpet  where  the  grubs  have  eaten  off  the  root  system.  When 
such  infested  fields  are  plowed  and  corn  is  planted  they  completely 
destroy  the  corn  crop. 

Remedies. — The  remedies  suggested  for  the  wire  worms  are 
also  helpful  in  controlling  the  gi  ubs.  Hogs  are  fond  of  the  grubs 
and  are  often  of  help  in  cleaning  up  the  infested  fields. 

Sod  Webworms  ( Crambus L — There  are  several  species  of  sod 
webworms.  They  are  small  caterpillars  which  breed  abundantly 
in  sod.  When  the  sod  is  plowed  in  the  spring  and  corn  is  planted 
they  turn  to  the  corn. 

Description. — The  sod  webworms  are  about  an  inch  long  when 
full  grown  and  usually  reddish-brown  in  color.  The  body  has 
numerous  rather  conspicuous  tubercles  from  which  project  short 
bristling  hair.  The  worm  is  very  active.  The  moths  vary  in  color 
but  are  easily  distinguished  from  others  by  the  habit  they  have  of 
folding  the  wings  down  along  the  sides  of  the  body  so  as  to  resem- 


10  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


ble  a portion  of  bleached  grass  blades  more  than  a moth.  The 
moths  are  the  common  light  colored  ones  which  fly  up  ahead  of 
one  while  walking  in  pastures. 

Life  History. — There  seems  to  be  but  two  broods  a year.  The 
winter  is  passed  by  the  partly  grown  caterpillars  in  the  ground  and 


these  are  the  ones  which  destroy  the  young  corn.  They  mature 
by  June  and  the  moths  usually  fly  to  sod  to  lay  eggs  for  the  sum- 
mer brood  which  matures  and  lays  eggs  for  the  brood  which  again 
passes  the  next  winter. 

Injury. — The  injury  to  grasses  in  pastures  and  meadows  is 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


11 


great  but  usually  entirely  overlooked.  It  is  the  injury  to  corn 
which  attracts  attention.  Corn  planted  on  sod  land  spring-plowed 
often  suffers  severely.  In  some  cases  three  or  four  plantings  are 
necessary  before  a stand  is  obtained.  The  worms  injure  the  corn 
by  feeding  on  the  roots,  cutting  plants  off  like  cutworms,  by  eating 
gashes  in  the  sides  of  the  stalk  near  the  ground  or  they  may  work 
down  in  the  growing  tip.  The  injury  usually  results  in  the  loss  of 
the  plant. 

Remedies. — Late  summer  or  fall  plowing  is  the  only  practical 


Fig.  13. — Corn  Bill-bug,  S.  aequa- 
lis,  adult  beetle,  back  and  side 
view;  enlarged.  (After  Forbes) 


Fig.  14. — Corn  Bill-bug,  S. 
parz'ulus,  adult  beetle,  back  and 
side  view;  enlarged.  (After 
Forbefe) 


method  of  reaching  the  pest.  This  deprives  the  fall  brood  of  young 
worms  of  food  and  usually  cleans  up  a field  sb  that  there  are  few 
to  pass  the  winter  and  attack  the  corn  crop.  When  the  pest  shows 
up  and  injures  the  first  planting,  replant  a couple  of  weeks  later  or 
until  a stand  is  secured. 

Corn  Bill-beetles  ( Sphhenophorus  aequalis  and  parvulus). — 
These  beetles  have  their  mouth  parts  at  the  tip  of  a drawn-out 


12  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


snout,  as  the  name  implies,  and  by  means  of  the  snout,  the  beetle 
is  able  to  eat  holes  into  the  young  corn  plants  thereby  injuring  or 
completely  destroying  the  plants. 

Description. — There  are  two  very  common  species  of  these 
beetles  in  the  state,  besides  other  less  common  ones.  The  one  is 
grayish  in  color  and  from  one-half  to  thee-fourths  of  an  inch  long, 
while  the  second  is  black  and  less  than  one-half  the  size  of  the 
other.  They  are  oblong  in  shape  and  the  body  is  very  hard.  When 
disturbed  they  feign  death  and  drop  from  the  plant. 

Life  History. — The  pest  breeds  largely  in  low  pastures  where- 
wild  grasses  and  sedges  abound.  The  grub  stage  of  the  pest  feeds 
in  the  bulbs  of  such  plants  and  when  mature  comes  out  and  feeds 
on  grasses  and  other  crops.  There  is  but  one  brood  a year  and  the 
beetles  appear  about  the  time  corn  comes  up. 

Injury— The  injury  to  corn,  wheat  and  similar  crops  is  due  to 
the  feeding  of  the  mature  beetle.  The  mouth  parts  are  at  the  tip  of 
the  bill  and  by  eating  holes  into  the  developing  stalk  of  corn  the 
growing  bud  may  be  destroyed.  Later,  as  the  leaves  expand  where 
the  plant  is  not  completely  destroyed  the  effects  of  the  work  of  the 
beetles  appear  as  rows  of  holes  in  the  leaves. 

Remedies. — The  injury  from  this  pest  is  most  effectually  pre- 
vented by  plowing  infested  fields  in  the  summer  or  fall,  thereby 
killing  or  driving  out  most  of  the  beetles  before  the  corn  is  planted 
the  next  spring.  When  they  appear  in  a cornfield  there  is  no  way 
of  destroying  them  except  by  hand  picking. 

Chinch  Bug  ( Blissus  leucopterus  Say). — This  pest  is  perhaps 
most  destructive  to  the  wheat  crop,  tho  corn  is  seriously  injured 
and  the  injury  to  grasses  is  also  very  considerable.  The  pest 
appears  as  a scourge  more  or  less  periodically.  For  a series  of 
years  there  are  few  chinch  bugs  and  no  damage  is  done,  but  all  of 
a sudden  a visitation  of  the  pest  occurs  and  then  for  four  or  five 
years  they  may  be  abundant  and  destructive. 

Description. — The  chinch  bug  is  so  well  known  that  a descrip- 
tion of  it  is  hardly  necessary.  The  very  young  bugs  are  red  but 
as  they  pass  thru  the  different  stages  of  development  they  turn 
dark.  The  mature  winged  bugs  are  black  with  whitish  spots  on 
the  wings.  They  are  about  the  length  of  a wheat  grain.  When 
crushed  they  give  off  the  characteristic,  penetrating  bug  odor. 

Life  History. — In  this  state  there  are  two  generations  each 
year.  The  pest  winters  in  the  mature  winged  stage  in  dead  grass, 
under  rubbish,  and  in  other  similar  protected  places.  Early  in  the 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


13 


Fig.  15. — Chinch-bug:  a , Egg;  b,  c,  d,  e,  four  nymphal  stages;  f,  mature  chinch-bug; 

g,  wheat  plant  showing  a number  of  eggs  natural  size.  (Original) 


14  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 

spring,  the  bugs  fly  in  search  of  wheat  and  other  crops,  where  their 
eggs  are  deposited.  These  hatch  and  the  young  bugs  are  nearly 
mature  at  wheat-cutting  time,  when  they  migrate  to  corn  and  other 
green  crops.  This  generation  is  soon  mature  and  the  second  crop 
of  eggs  is  laid.  These  hatch  and  the  second  generation  of  bugs 
feed  on  the  sap  of  corn  and  other  green  plants  maturing  before 
frost  when  they  fly  in  search  of  winter  quarters. 

Injury.— This  pest  injures  the  plant  largely  by  piercing  and 
extracting  its  sap,  tho  along  with  this  it  seems  to  inject  a certain 
amount  of  poison  somewhat  similar  to  other  sucking  insects,  as  for 
example  the  mosquito.  Early  in  the  season  the  injury  to  wheat, 
due  to  the  work  of  the  millions  of  tiny  bugs,  begins  to  appear  as  a stunt- 
ing of  its  growth.  Later  the  wheat  turns  yellow  and  may  be  com- 
pletely killed,  tho  more  often  it  heads  out  and  matures  a small 
quantity  of  inferior  grain.  Where  grass  and  clover  seed  is  sown 
in  wheat  fields,  the  pest  destroys  the  wheat  and  then  turns  to  the 
grass,  leaving  the  clover  alone. 

After  the  summer  migration  the  corn  suffers  most.  The  bugs 
may  kill  the  first  few  rows  of  corn  during  the  migration.  After 
they  get  wings  they  fly  all  over  the  field  and  may  seem  to  do  no 
further  injury,  tho  in  fact  they  multiply  one  hundred  fold  and  while 
their  work  is  scattered,  it  is  greatly  increased  and  the  damage  is 
far  greater  than  the  farmer  supposes.  Legumes  of  all  sorts  are  left 
strictly  alone. 

Remedies. — There  are  various  means  of  attacking  this  pest 
and  each  farmer  should  make  use  of  the  method  which  best  suits 
his  particular  conditions.  The  most  effective  work  can  be  done 
during  the  winter  and  just  at  the  time  the  summer  migration 
occurs.  Between  fall  and  early  spring  the  winter-over  bugs  are  all 
harboring  in  protected  places.  If  these  places  are  burned  over  or 
treated  so  as  to  kill  or  expose  the  bugs,  the  number  of  bugs  can  be 
so  reduced  that  few  will  come  out  in  the  spring  to  start  the  trouble. 

In  the  summer,  if  the  pest  is  prevented  from  migrating  from 
wheat  fields  to  corn  or  other  crops  by  means  of  barriers,  it  can  be 
starved  out.  The  dust  barriers  are  most  practical  during  the  dry 
weather  but  in  case  of  rain  a chemical  barrier  is  necessary.  The 
simplest  dust  barrier  is  made  by  plowing  one  or  more  parallel 
ditches  and  dragging  a log  or  trough  back  and  forth  in  the  ditches 
so  as  to  keep  a fine  mulch  of  dust  in  them  and  grind  up  the  hordes 
of  bugs  as  they  fall  into  them.  A plowed  strip,  which  is  carefully 
pulverized  and  kept  stirred  by  means  of  a harrow  or  weighted 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


15 


brush  is  also  effective.  The  bugs  migrate  from  about  eight  o’clock 
in  the  morning  until  sundown  so  the  dust  must  be  kept  stirred  dur- 
ing this  time.  The  migration  period  seldom  lasts  more  than  two 
weeks. 

When  it  is  not  possible  to  maintain  a dust  barrier,  some  chem- 
ical repellant  must  be  used.  Several  materials  have  been  tested 
and  of  these  coal-tar,  heavy  road  oil,  crude  carbolic  acid  and  cre- 
osote have  proven  most  effective.  Some  one  of  these  materials 
should  be  on  hand  or  the  grower  should  know  where  he  can  get 
them  without  delay.  Before  applying,  first  smooth  down  a narrow 
path  with  a hoe  or  shovel.  Then  run  a narrow  line  of  the  mate- 
rial. By  driving  a nail  thru  the  side  of  a powder  can  or  other  cheap 
pail  the  material  can  be  easily  and  quickly  distributed  without 
wraste.  The  line  must  be  renewed  to  keep  it  fresh  so  that  the  bugs 
will  not  cross.  Postholes  dug  every  ten  feet  to  trap  the  bugs,  •«•:> 
they  crawl  along  the  barrier  in  search  of  a place  to  cross,  are  also 
helpful. 

Besides  these  two  methods  of  attack  the  use  of  oil  sprays 
where  the  bugs  get  over  before  the  barriers  are  formed,  and  a dozen 
other  simple  treatments  can  be  used  to  reduce  their  number.  Keep 
cornfields  as  far  from  wheat  fields  as  possible  so  as  to  prevent  the 
summer  migration. 

The  fungus  disease  which  attacks  the  pest  and  which  was  much 
exploited  in  former  years  has  not  been  able  recently  to  develop  and 
help  control  the  pest.  The  fungus  spores  are  distributed  in  all 
fields  and  will  sprout  and  develop  when  the  weather  conditions 
are  entirely  favorable,  but  not  until  then.  Farmers  must,  there- 
fore, depend  on  their  own  efforts  to  check  the  pest  and  when 
weather  conditions,  over  which  they  have  no  control,  are  right  the 
disease  will  spring  up  and  help  destroy  the  pest. 

The  past  winter  has  been  rather  severe  but  there  w'as  an  un- 
usually large  supply  of  bugs  which  went  into  winter  quarters  and, 
where  they  wrere  not  destroyed  by  burning  over  their  harboring 
places,  they  have  come  out  in  countless  swarms  and  much  injury 
may  be  expected  this  summer. 

Corn  Ear-worm  ( Heliothis  obsolcta  Fab.). — For  the  last  few 
years  this  pest  has  probably  destroyed  more  corn  in  Missouri  than 
any  other  single  insect  pest.  It  is  a very  general  feeder  and  is  not 
confined  to  corn  tho  that  crop  suffers  most. 

Description. — Everyone  is  familiar  with  this  caterpillar.  Like 
the  army  worm,  which  it  somewhat  resembles,  it  varies  in  color  but 


16  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


is  usually  greenish  or  blackish  with  light  stripes.  The  worm  com- 
monly found  in  ears  of  corn,  in  green  tomatoes,  bean  pods,  etc.,  is 
the  corn  ear-worm.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  cutworms  but  is 
seldom  found  feeding  exposed.  The  parent  moth  is  brownish, 
variegated  with  black,  expands  about  an  inch  and  a half  and  may 
be  seen  about  flowers  in  the  daytime,  which  is  unusual  of  moths. 


Fig.  16. — Corn  Ear-worm:  a,  Moth;  b,  egg  enlarged;  c,  larva; 

d,  pupa  in  earthern  cell;  e,  larva  feeding  on  corn  ear.  (Orig- 
inal) 


Life  History. — The  pest  winters  underground  as  a brown  pupa 
and  in  the  spring  the  moth  emerges.  In  Missouri  there  seem  to  be 
two  generations  before  corn  “shoots”  and  seemingly  a number  of 
summer  and  fall  broods.  This  has  not  been  carefully  worked  out 
but  caterpillars  in  all  stages  are  to  be  found  until  frost.  The  rest- 
ing or  pupal  period  of  a few  days  in  the  summer  is  passed  in  the  ground 
where  the  full-fed  caterpillar  goes  when  it  leaves  the  corn. 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


17 


Injury. — The  injury  to  corn  is  due  to  the  fact  that  much  corn 
is  eaten  and  an  entrance  is  provided  for  smuts  and  other  plant 
diseases,  some  of  which  seem  to  be  responsible  for  part  of  the  stock 
poisoning  where  smutty  corn  is  fed.  The  pest  is  always  more 
troublesome  when  the  summer  is  dry  and  is  followed  by  a rainy 
fall.  The  last  two  years  have  been  especially  favorable  for  the 
pest  and  the  injury  has  been  unusually  severe. 

The  corn  ear-worm  is  primarily  a pest  of  field  and  sweet  corn, 
but  it  may  also  do  much  damage  to  other  crops,  such  as  tomatoes, 
cotton,  beans,  cowpeas  and  may  do  considerable  injury  to  young 
alfalfa  in  the  fall.  It  feeds  largely  as  a borer  within  the  plant 
where  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  reach  it  with  poison. 

Remedy. — Since  the  pest  winters  as  a pupa  underground,  win- 
ter plowing  of  infested  fields  will  expose  the  pupae  to  the  winter 
and  few  will  live  to  give  off  moths  in  the  spring.  If  it  were  pos- 
sible to  winter  plow  all  fields  where  the  pest  is  wintering  this  alone 
would  prove  effective,  but  the  pest  is  such  a general  feeder  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  reach  all  of  them  in  this  way. 

The  parent  moth  lays  its  eggs  largely  on  the  corn  silks.  After 
hatching  from  the  eggs  the  caterpillars  must  enter  the  corn-ear  and 
it  may  be  possible  to  devise  some  practical  method  of  destroying 
the  eggs  or  caterpillars  before  they  enter  the  ears. 

This  is  being  investigated  at  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, but  as  yet  no  treatment  has  been  found  which  is  both  practical 
and  effective. 

Army  Worm  ( Leucania  unipuncta  Haworth). — The  army 
worm  is  discussed  with  the  grass  insect  pests. 

Cutworms  (Noctuidae) . — The  cutworms  are  discussed  with 
the  grass  insect  pests. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  WHEAT 

The  greater  part  of  the  insect  injury  to  wheat  is  due  to  the 
work  of  a half  dozen  insects,  tho  there  are  a great  many  of  less 
importance.  The  insect  injuries  to  wheat  have  been  unusually 
great  in  recent  years  and  in  view  of  present  demands  and  prices 
it  is  important  that  these  pests  be  controlled. 

Hessian  Fly  ( Cecidomyia  destructor  Say). — This  is  perhaps 
the  most  destructive  wheat  pest  in  Missouri.  Fortunately  this  pest 
confines  its  injury  to  the  wheat  crop. 

Description. — The  Hessian  fly  gets  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  into  this  country  from  Europe 


18  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


Fig.  17. — Hessian  Fly:  a,  Egg;  b,  larva;  c,  flaxseed;  d,  pupa;  e,  fly  depositing  eggs; 
f,  female  fly;  g,  male  fly;  h,  flaxseed  stage  in  wheat  plant.  (After  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture) 

in  straw  by  the  Hessian  soldiers.  Farmers  speak  of  it  as  the  “fly" 
but  very  few  of  them  have  ever  seen  the  pest  in  the  mature  fly 
stage.  It  is  better  known  in  the  soft  maggot  stage  or  in  the  brown 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


19 


flax-seed  stage.  These  can  be  readily  found  in  the  base  of  injured 
plants.  The  fly  itself  resembles  a small  black  mosquito  somewhat 
and  is  not  easily  seen  or  caught  in  the  field.  The  large  long-legged 
crane-flies  are  often  mistaken  for  the  Hessian  fly. 

Life  History. — The  development  of  the  pest  is  greatly  influ- 
enced both  by  temperature  and  moisture.  Normally  there  are  two 
broods  a year  in  Missouri,  one  fall  and  one  spring  brood.  Some 
years,  however,  there  may  be  two  or  even  three  light  supplemen- 
tary broods. 

Beginning  with  the  fall  brood,  the  flies  begin  to  appear  by  the 
middle  of  September  and  but  few  continue  to  appear  after  the  mid- 
dle of  October  in  a normal  fall.  Each  fly  lives  but  a few  days  and 
each  female  lays  one  hundred  or  more  eggs.  On  hatching,  the 
maggot  works  down  between  the  leaf  and  the  stem  of  the  young 
plant  where  it  irritates  the  plant  and  feeds  on  the  escaping  sap.  When 
full  grown  the  maggot  passes  to  the  flax-seed  stage  which  is  merely 
the  full-fed  maggot  protected  by  the  maggot  skin  which  turns 
brown.  Early  in  the  spring  the  maggot  transforms  to  the  resting 
stage  within  the  brown  case  and  later  the  winged  fly  escapes  to  lay 
egg's  for  the  spring  brood  of  maggots.  These  maggots  mature  and 
pass  the  summer  largely  in  the  stubble  in  the  flax-seed  stage  and 
the  adult  flies  from  these  are  the  ones  which  come  out  in  the  fall 
to  lay  the  eggs  for  the  fall  brood  of  maggots. 

When  the  spring  is  unusually  warm  and  moist  a partial  sec- 
ond brood  may  develop.  In  like  manner  when  the  fall  is  unusually 
rainy  and  warm,  as  in  1914,  an  additional  partial  fall  brood  may 
appear  about  the  first  of  November.  A partial  summer  brood  may  also 
develop. 

Injury. — The  injury  is  done  entirely  by  the  maggot  feeding  in 
the  base  of  the  wheat  plant.  The  hard,  brown  flax-seed  stage,  often 
called  the  “egg,”  does  not  feed,  neither  does  the  winged  fly.  The 
fall  injury  may  be  so  severe  that  the  entire  field  turns  yellow  and 
dies  tho  more  often  “tillers”  are  formed  to  replace  the  injured  cen- 
tral plant.  The  maggot  does  not  eat  the  plant  off  but  merely 
irritates  the  tender  stem  causing  the  sap  to  flow,  which  it  uses  for 
food. 

The  spring  injury,  similar  to  the  fall  injury,  causes  the  wheat 
to  dwindle  and  turn  yellow.  The  maggots  feed  higher  up  on  the 
plant  but  are  largely  confined  to  the  first  two  joints.  The  lodging 
of  wheat  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  maggot  feeds  at  the  joints  and 
causes  the  stem  to  become  brittle  and  deformed  so  that  heavy 
winds  cause  it  to  bend  or  break  after  it  heads. 


20  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 

Remedies. — There  are  two  practicable  methods  of  reaching 
this  pest.  After  the  wheat  is  cut  the  flax-seed  stages  are  found 
in  the  stubble.  If  this  stubble  can  be  entirely  destroyed,  by  plow- 
ing under  thoroly,  and  cultivating  the  ground,  few  will  survive  to 
give  off  the  flies  in  the  fall.  Then  in  the  fall  if  it  is  possible  to  delay 
wheat  sowing  until  all  or  nearly  all  the  flies  have  come  and  gone 
the  young  wheat  will  come  up  and  not  be  infested.  The  eggs  are 
laid  on  the  leaves  of  the  wheat  and  if  the  seed  wheat  is  still  in  the 
granary  when  the  flies  are  out  on  wing  in  search  of  young  wheat 
the  wheat  crop  will  be  protected  from  the  pest.  For  north  Missou- 
ri wheat  should  not  be  sown  before  the  first  of  October,  for  central 
Missouri  the  tenth  of  October  and  for  southern  Missouri  the  fif- 
teenth to  the  twentieth  of  October. 

Where  wheat  is  sown  according  to  these  directions,  there  may 
be  some  infested  wheat,  especially  if  the  season  is  a little  late  and 
the  flies  continue  to  emerge  late,  but  the  main  injury  will  be  avoided. 
By  combining  the  work  of  destruction  of  stubble  as  soon  as  the 
wheat  is  off  the  field  and  the  destruction  of  all  volunteer  wheat  by 
cultivation  with  the  sowing  of  wheat  on  the  fly-free  date,  the  pest 
can  be  effectively  kept  under  control  in  any  community,  if  all  will 
cooperate  in  the  work.  Cooperation  is  essential  and  wheat  should 
never  be  sown  early  for  pasture  in  a community  where  the  fly  is 
bad  and  a campaign  is  being  waged  for  its  control.  Volunteer 
wheat  is  just  as  bad  as  early  sown  wheat  so  keep  it  down  and  never 
sow  a strip  as  a trap  crop.  It  is  unnecessary  and  dangerous,  to  say 
the  least,  when  for  one  reason  or  other  it  cannot  or  is  not  plowed 
under  before  the  main  crop  is  sown. 

Wheat  Joint-worm  ( Isosoma  tritici  Fitch). — The  joint-worm 
is  fully  as  destructive  as  the  Hessian  fly  in  some  places  in  the  state. 

Description. — The  parent  of  the  joint-worm  is  a small,  dark, 
wasp-like  insect  with  four  wings,  somewhat  resembling  a small 
winged  ant.  The  farmer  is  not  familiar  with  the  adult  but  has 
probably  seen  the  gnarled  or  otherwise  deformed  places  on  wheat 
straws  which  are  brittle  and  often  break  into  pieces  in  the  thresher 
and  come  out  with  the  wheat.  This  injury  is  done  by  the  grub 
stage  of  the  pest.  By  opening  these  bits  of  deformed  wheat  straw 
the  small  white  grubs  will  be  found  inside. 

Life  History. — The  joint-worm  has  one  brood  a year.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  stubble  and  straw  and  in  the  spring  the 
adults  emerge  and  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  wheat  near  the  nodes, 
where  the  grubs  feed. 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


21 


Injury. — The  injury  is  something  similar  to  that  caused  by  the 
spring  brood  of  the  Hessian  fly.  The  pest  saps  and  kills  the  plant 
or  weakens  the  straw,  causing  lodging.  Joint-worm  injury  is  often 
mistaken  for  fly  work. 

Remedies.— The  joint-worms  are  not  difficult  to  control  as  a 
rule.  By  using  up  the  infested  straw  and  completely  destroying 
all  infested  stubble  before  spring  and  rotating  the  wheat  to  other 
fields,  this  pest  can  be  controlled. 


Fig.  18. — Wheat  Joint- 

Worm  showing  injured  straw 
with  openings  thru  which 
the  adults  have  emerged. 
a,  Adult.  (Original) 


Fig.  19. — Grain  Plant-louse, 
on  head  of  wheat  enlarged. 
(After  Weed) 


Grain  Lice  ( Macrosiphum  granaria  Bucton  and  Toxoptera  grarn- 
inum  Rond.) — There  are  two  forms  of  green  lice  which  have  been 
known  to  do  damage  to  wheat  in  Missouri.  The  common  form  is 
present  every  year  but  only  occasionally  does  damage.  The  other 
form  is  known  as  the  spring  grain  louse  or  “green-bug”  and  has  vis- 
ited Missouri  but  once  in  recent  years  and  then  in  very  destructive 
numbers. 

Description. — These  lice  resemble  the  other  green  plant  lice 
and  will  be  found  either  on  the  wheat  heads  or  on  the  leaves  suck- 
ing the  sap  from  the  plants. 


22  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


Life  History. — The  common  form  may  winter  on  wheat  in  Mis- 
souri but  the  second  form  seems  to  winter  in  the  southern  states 
and  migrates  north  in  the  spring.  During  the  summer  they  repro- 
duce rapidly  and  when  not  checked  by  natural  enemies  often  over- 
run the  wheat  and  related  crops. 

Injury. — The  common  form  when  destructive  at  all  will  be 
found  covering  the  wheat  heads  when  the  grain  is  “in  the  milk.” 
few  days  of  heavy  feeding  at  that  time  will  decrease  the  yield. 
The  spring  grain  louse  is  destructive  earlier  in  the  spring  when  the 
wheat  is  yet  small.  When  it  gets  an  early  start  in  the  southern 
states  and  the  northern  spring  is  backward,  the  grain  louse,  which 
breeds  freely  in  cool  weather,  migrates  north  and  being  unchecked 
by  lady  beetles  and  other  natural  enemies  it  is  able  to  destroy  much 
wheat. 

Remedies. — There  is  seldom  any  need  of  applying  remedies 
for  these  pests.  Only  under  exceptional  conditions  do  their  natur- 
al enemies,  lady  beetles,  parasitic  wasps,  syrphid  flies  and  aphis 
lions,  fail  to  control  them. 

Wheat  Midge  ( Diplosis  tritici  Kby.). — This  is  a close  relative 
of  the  Hessian  fly,  but,  unlike  it,  developes  in  the  heads  of  the 
wheat,  feeding  on  the  soft  developing  grain. 

Description. — The  injury  is  done  by  the  small  yellow  or  orange 
maggot,  which  is  often  called  the  “red-weevil,”  when  it  is  carried 
to  the  stack  and  comes  out  of  the  thresher  with  the  grain.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  the  maggot  of  the  Hessian  fly  and  the  adult  fly 
resembles  the  Hessian  fly  in  general  appearance. 

Life  History. — There  is  seemingly  but  one  brood  a year.  The 
pest  winters  in  the  ground  in  the  pupa  stage  and  the  flies  emerge 
to  lay  eggs  in  early  summer.  Before  the  grains  become  hard  the 
maggots  are  full  fed  and  most  of  them  are  washed  to  the  ground 
by  the  rain.  They  enter  the  ground  and  prepare  a cell  in  which  to 
pass  the  winter. 

Injury. — This  pest  has  not  as  yet  attracted  special  attention  in 
Missouri,  tho  it  has  already  crossed  the  Mississippi  River.  The 
injury  is  done  directly  to  the  soft,  developing  grains.  The  maggot 
works  on  these  and  feeds  on  the  escaping  milky  juice.  This  reduces 
both  the  quality  and  quantity  of  grain.  In  the  last  fifty  years  the 
pest  has  not  been  as  destructive  in  this  country  as  formerly. 

Remedies. — This  pest  is  readily  controlled  by  crop  rotation  and 
by  deeply  plowing  infested  fields  in  the  fall  and  winter. 

Fall  Army  Worm  ( Laphygtna  frugipcrda  S.  and  A.). — The  pest 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


23 


is  somewhat  similar  to  the  army  worm  proper,  tho  its  habits  are 
different  and  it  appears  as  a pest  at  a different  season  of  the  year. 

Description. — The  parent  insect  is  a dark,  night-flying  moth 
similar  to  the  parent  of  cutworms  but  the  farmer  is  more  familiar 
with  the  caterpillar.  The  caterpillar  somewhat  resembles  the  gen- 


Fig.  20. — Fall  Army  Worm:  a,  Moth;  b.  caterpillar 
feeding  on  wheat;  c,  pupa;  d,  moth  with  wings  closed 
as  in  rest 


Fig.  21.  — Wheat-Head 
Army  Worm:  a,  Larvae 

feeding;  b,  eggs  in  leaf 
sheath ; c,  d,  eggs  much  en- 
larged ; adult  moth  at  top. 
(After  Smith) 


uine  army  worm  and  the  corn  ear-worm  in  general  markings,  tho 
a careful  examination  will  reveal  differences.  It  is  not  quite  as 
large  as  the  army  worm. 

Life  History. — The  pest  winters  just  below  the  surface  of  the 


24  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


ground  as  the  pupa  and  the  moths  emerge  in  the  spring.  There  are 
two  summer  broods  in  Missouri,  which  do  slight  injury,  and  the 
fall  brood,  which  is  often  very  destructive.  The  caterpillars  of  the 
fall  brood  enter  the  ground  and  pupate  in  the  late  fall. 

Injury. — The  year  1911  was  the  real  fall  army  worm  year  in 
Missouri.  From  a careful  study  of  the  work  and  distribution  of 
the  pest  that  year,  it  was  found  to  be  quite  generally  distributed  over 
the  state  and  damaged  wheat,  rye,  clover,  and  alfalfa  most.  It  com- 
pletely stripped  thousands  of  acres  of  early  sown  wheat  and  rye 
that  year  and  truly  assumed  the  role  of  an  important  pest.  The 
heaviest  feeding  was  done  before  the  middle  of  October,  tho  some 
were  at  work  until  frost.  Like  the  army  worm  they  literally  de- 
voured everything  green,  eating  wheat  down  to  the  ground,  killing 
most  of  it  outright. 

Remedies. — By  discing  infested  fields  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in 
the  spring  many  of  the  pupae  can  be  destroyed.  When  the  cater- 
pillars are  feeding  us  the  bran  mash  recommended  for  the  cut- 
worms and  army  worm.  A weighted  brush  or  roller  will  also  help 
some. 

Wheat-head  Army  Worm  ( Meliana  albilinea  Hbn.). — This 
pest  has  not  done  much  damage  in  Missouri  in  recent  years  tho  it 
has  been  destructive  in  Iowa. 

Description. — The  parent  moth  is  about  the  size  of  the  moth  of 
the  real  army  worm  but  is  of  a pale  yellow  or  straw-color.  It  flies 
only  at  night.  The  caterpillar  varies  in  color,  as  is  the  case  with 
other  related  caterpillars,  but  in  general  appearance  it  resembles  the 
cutworms  and  army  worms.  Its  peculiar  habit  of  attacking  timothy 
and  wheat  heads  at  once  distinguishes  it  from  them  however. 

Life  History. — The  moths  appear  and  lay  eggs  early  in  May. 
The  caterpillers  feed  on  the  blades  until  the  grains  are  “in  the 
milk,”  when  they  attack  the  wheat  heads  and  first  attract  atten- 
tion. When  these  are  full-grown  they  enter  the  ground  to  pupate 
and  the  moths  begin  to  emerge  the  middle  of  July.  These  lay 
for  the  second  brood  of  caterpillars  which  feed  on  grasses 
and  other  green  crops  in  the  fall.  These  pupate  in  the  soil  and 
pass  the  winter  there.  There  are  two  generations  a year. 

Injury. — The  pest  was  formerly  known  as  a pest  of  wheat  but 
in  recent  years  has  proven  to  be  a severe  pest  of  timothy  in  Iowa. 
It  attacks  the  blades  of  wheat  and  grasses  when  small  and  later, 
when  half-grown,  attacks  the  heads. 

Remedies.— Fall  plowing  in  September  to  destroy  the  fall 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


25 


brood  of  worms  or  winter  plowing  to  destroy  the  pupa  seems  to  be 
effective  where  this  pest  causes  trouble.  The  poison  bran  mash 
will  also  help. 

Army  Worm. — Discussed  with  insect  pests  of  grasses. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  LEGUMES 

Fortunately,  the  legumes  are  comparatively  free  from  destruc- 
tive insect  pests.  There  are  a few  forms,  however,  which  need 
attention. 

Clover  Leaf-weevil  ( Phytonomus  punctatus  Fabr.). — This  is 
most  troublesome  on  red  clover  and  alfalfa  early  in  the  spring. 


Fig.  22. — Clover  Leaf -weevil:  a,  Mature  beetle; 
b,  grub;  c,  pupa;  d,  cocoon;  e,  clover  plant  show- 
ing pest  at  work.  (Original) 


Its  close  relative  the  alfalfa  weevil,  which  has  recently  been  intro- 
duced in  Utah,  is  a most  destructive  pest  of  alfalfa  and  we  may 
some  day  have  it  to  deal  with  in  Missouri. 

Description. — The  adult  weevil  is  about  the  size  of  a large  pea, 
slightly  oblong,  brownish  in  color  and  like  most  weevils  or  snout 
beetles,  feigns  death  when  disturbed.  The  grub,  which  does  most 
of  the  injury,  is  about  one-half  inch  long  when  mature,  green  or 
yellowish-green  with  a white  line  down  its  back.  It  has  no  true 
legs,  tho  it  climbs  readily,  and  when  disturbed  coils  up. 

Life  History. — It  winters  largely  in  the  young  grub  stage,  tho 
occasionally  as  the  adult.  The  grubs  begin  to  feed  early  in  the 


26  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


spring.  They  eat  round  holes  thru  the  leaves  and  when  mature 
spin  frail  lace-like  cocoons  at  the  base  of  the  plant  in  which  they 
pupate.  The  beetles  emerge  later  and  in  the  fall  deposit  eggs 
which  produce  the  winter-over  grubs. 

Injury. — ’Where  the  pest  is  abundant  it  may  completely  strip 
clover  and  alfalfa  early  in  the  spring  seriously  injuring  the  crop. 
It  is  seldom  of  importance  on  young  clover  and  alfalfa.  As  the 
season  advances  the  injury  is  less  noticed. 

Remedies. — Remedies  are  seldom  necessary  for  this  pest.  By 
following  a careful  system  of  crop  rotation,  which  prevents  the 
keeping  of  clover  on  the  same  land  too  long,  the  pest  can  be  kept 
under  control.  The  pest  is  also  susceptible  to  a fungus  disease 
which  greatly  reduces  the  number  of  grubs  when  warm  weather 
arrives. 

Webworm  ( Loxostege  similalis  Gn.). — This  was  formerly  call- 
ed the  garden  webworm  but  in  recent  years  the  term  “alfalfa  web- 
worm”  would  describe  it  much  better. 

Description. — The  caterpillar  is  about  an  inch  long  when  full- 
grown,  slender,  very  active  and  yellowish  green  in  color  with  rows 
of  small  black  spots  or  tubercles.  It  spins  considerable  silk,  tying* 
the  leaves  and  stems  together  in  which  protected  place  it  feeds. 
The  moth  expands  a little  more  than  half  an  inch,  is  light  brown 
variegated  with  darker  and  lighter  spots  and  patches. 

Life  History. — The  life  cycle  of  the  pest  has  not  been  com- 
pletely worked  out.  It  probably  passes  the  winter  in  the  cater- 
pillar or  pupa  stage  and  the  moths  emerge  in  the  early  spring  to 
lay  eggs  for  the  first  brood  of  caterpillars.  In  1914  these  began  to 
appear,  feeding  on  weeds,  about  the  last  of  June  in  central  Mis- 
souri and  were  nearly  full-grown  by  the  fifteenth  of  July.  During 
the  summer  and  fall  the  pest  requires  about  four  weeks  to  mature 
so  that  there  are  probably  four  generations  each  year. 

Injury. — The  injury  is  done  by  the  caterpillar,  which  when 
abundant  completely  webs  up  and  devours  all  the  foliage  on  alfalfa, 
clover,  and  other  field  and  garden  crops.  The  pest  was  unusually 
destructive  to  young  alfalfa  during  the  summer  and  fall  of  1914. 

Remedies. — Winter  plowing  and  burning  of  weeds  and  other 
rubbish  in  infested  fields  will  help  control  the  pest.  When  the 
pest  appears  in  an  alfalfa  field  the  crop  should  be  cut  at  once  so 
as  to  starve  out  the  caterpillars.  The  use  of  a weighted  brush, 
roller  or  disc  on  infested  fields  will  also  help  to  destroy  the  pest. 
The  pest  is  likely  to  reappear  again  a second  year  where  conditions 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


27 


are  favorable,  but  if  the  first  broods  are  controlled  the  later  injury 
will  be  avoided. 


Clover-hay  Worm  ( Hypsopygia  costalis  Fab.). — This  is  large- 
ly a pest  of  clover  hay  in  the  stack  and  to  a less  degree  in  the  mow, 
tho  it  has  done  some  injury  to  growing  clover  in  Missouri  where 
the  crop  was  unusually  heavy  on  the  ground. 

Description. — The  pest  is  a small,  active,  reddish-brown  cater- 
pillar which  when  full-grown  is  nearly  an  inch  long.  It  is  usually 
found  associated  with  silk  which  it  spins  in  the  clover  hay.  The 
small  moth  expands  nearly  an  inch  and  its  wings  are  tinged  with 
purple  and  marked  with  golden  blotches. 

Life  History. — The  full-fed  caterpillers  pass  the  winter,  pupate, 
and  the  moths  begin  to  emerge  in  June.  In  two  months  the  moths 
of  the  second  brood  begin  to  emerge  and  the  caterpillars  which 
hatch  from  their  eggs  are  full-fed  before  winter. 

Injury.— This  pest  does  not  actually  eat  a great  deal  of  the 
clover  hay  but  it  webs  up  the  hay  so  that  stock  will  not  feed  on  it. 


Fig.  23. — Webworm:  a,  Moth;  b,  caterpillar: 
c,  pupa;  d,  cocoon;  e,  portion  of  alfalfa  plant 
attacked  by  the  caterpillar.  (Original) 


28  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


Clover  hay  is  most  severely  attacked  where  it  is  carried  over  a sec- 
ond year. 

Remedies. — The  pest  can  be  prevented  from  injuring  hay  if  all 
the  hay  is  fed  out  in  the  spring  before  the  new  hay  is  brought  in. 
When  the  clover  hay  is  stacked  in  the  field,  it  should  be  kept  off  the 
ground  so  that  it  will  remain  dry.  It  has  also  been  found  that  half 
a gallon  of  salt  to  a ton  of  clover  hay  will  help  to  keep  the  pest  out 
of  it. 


worm. 

Clover-Seed  Pests, — There  are  three  insects  which  attack  the 
clover  seed.  One  is  a gnat,  the  clover  seed  midge ; one  a wasp,  the 
clover  seed  calcid ; and  one  a caterpillar,  the  clover  seed  caterpillar. 
Where  clover  seed  is  grown  extensively  these  pests  may  prove  to  be 
of  very  great  importance  by  reducing  the  yield. 

In  each  case  the  young  active  feeding  stage,  maggot,  grub  and 
caterpillar,  devours  the  seed  or  eats  out  the  interior.  The  pests  are 
exceedingly  small  and  few  growers  are  likely  to  see  them,  tho  their 
effects  are  noted  when  the  seed  is  threshed. 

Remedies. — Where  one  or  more  of  these  pests  are  abundant 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


29 


and  destructive,  cut  the  first,  the  hay  crop,  a little  early.  This  de- 
stroys the  infested  blossoms  before  the  young  pests  are  full-fed  and 
it  brings  out  the  blossoms  of  the  seed  crop  earlier  so  as  to  escape 
the  next  brood  of  the  pest. 

Corn  Ear-worm. — This  has  been  discussed  with  the  insect  pests 
of  corn.  It  is  also  a pest  of  legumes  boring  into  the  pods  of  cow- 
peas  and  other  legumes,  and  at  times  it  may  feed  on  alfalfa. 

Fall  Army  Worm. — For  a full  discussion  of  this  pest  see  insect 
pests  of  wheat.  It  often  does  much  damage  to  young  clover,  and 
alfalfa  in  the  fall  and  may,  therefore,  be  a severe  pest  of  legumes. 

Army  Worm. — This  pest  ordinarily  does  not  do  much  damage  to 
legumes,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  state  in  1914  it  completely  strip- 
ped fields  of  alfalfa  and  clover.  It  will  be  discussed  with  the  insect 
pests  of  grasses. 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  GRASSES 

Many  of  the  insects  already  discussed  as  pests  of  other  crops 
may  also  attack  grasses.  In  some  cases  they  are  pests  of  other 
crops  only  when  infested  sod  is  plowed  under  and  those  crops  fol- 
low. This  is  true  of  white  grubs,  wireworms,  cutworms,  “bill- 
bugs,^ ” etc.  The  pests  to  be  discussed  here  may  also  do  much  dam- 
age to  other  crops. 

Army  Worm  ( Leucania  unipuncta  Haworth). — This  pest  is 
more  or  less  injurious  in  some  parts  of  the  state  every  few  years, 
but  seldom  appears  as  a general  scourge  over  the  state.  In  1914 
it  was  unusually  abundant  and  its  destructive  work  was  the  great- 
est on  record,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  outbreak  in  the 
early  sixties.  Destructive  colonies  of  the  caterpillars  appeared 
over  practically  all  of  the  farming  sections  of  the  state. 

Description. — The  army  worm  is  more  slender  than  the  cut- 
worms and  far  more  active  but  in  general  appearance  resembles  the 
common  cutworms.  It  varies  in  color  but  is  marked  with  light  and 
dark  stripes  which  run  lengthwise  of  the  body.  When  full-grown 
it  is  nearly  two  inches  long. 

The  parent  moth  expands  nearly  two  inches,  is  light  brown  in 
color  with  a single  white  spot  in  the  center  of  each  front  wing.  It 
flies  at  night  and  feeds  on  fruit  juices  and  other  liquids. 

Life  History. — The  pest  seems  to  winter  in  different  stages, 
tho  largely  perhaps  as  the  moth  or  young  caterpillar.  The  first 
brood,  which  begins  to  attract  attention  late  in  May.  is  the  only  one 
which  does  damage,  tho  it  is  claimed  there  are  two  later  broods  in 


30  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


the  summer  and  fall.  The  pest  breeds  very  largely  in  meadows 
and  pastures  and,  when  not  too  abundant  and  dry  weather  does  not 
set  in,  no  migration  occurs,  but  when  food  is  scarce  the  caterpillars 
migrate.  When  the  caterpillars  are  full  fed  they  pupate  in  the 
ground  or  under  rubbish.  The  moths  appear  in  perfect  swarnis  by 
the  middle  of  July  and  after  a few  days  their  numbers  decrease, 
eithe"  due  to  migration  or  normal  mortality.  In  1914  no  further 


Fig.  25. — Army  Worm:  a.  Moth;  b,  two  eggs  much  enlarged, 
c,  eggs  on  blade  of  grass;  d,  pupa;  e,  caterpillar  or  army  worm; 
f,  injured  corn  plant  with  army  worms  feeding 


injury  was  done  by  the  pest  during  the  summer,  tho  just  before 
frost  the  moths  were  again  quite  numerous. 

Injury. — This  pest  is  not  a very  general  feeder.  It  depends 
largely  on  grass-like  crops,  truck  crops,  and  occasionally  legumes. 
The  injury  is  done  by  the  innumerable  swarms  of  caterpillars  which 
devour  every  oalatable  thing  in  their  reach.  Wheat  is  largely 
headed  and  the  injury  to  it  is  less  than  to  grasses,  oats,  corn,  and 
other  immature  crops.  The  pest  breeds  largely  in  meadows,  and 
bluegrass  pastures  and  injury  to  cultivated  crops  never  occurs 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


31 


until  the  grass  is  consumed  and  the  immature  caterpillars  are  forced 
to  migrate.  In  1914  the  injury  to  grass  and  cultivated  crops  was 
enormous. 

Remedies. — In  the  control  of  this  pest  the  farmer  must  be  on 
his  guard  and  ready  to  act  promptly  when  the  time  comes.  The 
caterpillars  will  be  found  working  in  meadows  and  pastures  for 
about  two  weeks  before  migration  begins.  They  hide  during  the 
day  and  begin  active  feeding  just  before  sundown.  The  young 
caterpillars  can  be  effectively  and  economically  controlled  by  sow- 


Fig.  26. — Bluegrass  pasture  completely  stripped  of  every  blade  of  grass  by  the  army  worm 


ing  broadcast  poison  bran  mash  made  by  mixing  fifty  pounds  of 
bran,  two  pounds  of  Paris  green,  four  quarts  of  sorghum  and 
enough  water  to  make  a mash.  Some  recommend  the  addition  of 
six  lemons  cut  fine  as  a further  appetizer.  Before  migration  begins 
a weighted  brush,  drag,  or  roller  will  help  reduce  their  numbers. 

After  the  migration  begins,  barriers  are  practical.  These  may 
consist  of  a furrow  in  which  a log  or  trough  is  kept  going,  a deep 
ditch  with  postholes,  greased  railroad  railings,  greased  planks  on 
fence,  a strip  of  bran  mash,  a strip  of  grass  sprayed  with  poison  and 


32  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


other  similar  treatments.  The  furrow  and  log  or  trough  is  prac- 
tical and  economical  and  during  the  outbreak  of  1914  proved  very 
effective.  If  the  pest  gets  a start  in  a cultivated  crop  throw  up' 
one  or  more  barriers  in  advance  of  them  and  also  maintain  a bar- 
rier at  the  edge  of  the  field  where  they  continue  to  enter. 

While  man  is  doing  all  he  can  to  check  these  unnatural  out- 
breaks he  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  good  work  of  his  numerous 
friends,  consisting  of  large  and  small  ground  beetles  and  their 
slender  black  grubs,  parasitic  wasps  and  flies,  blood-sucking  bugs,, 
birds,  toads  and  other  insectivorous  animals.  These,  under  normal 
conditions,  keep  down  most  of  the  pests  of  crops  without  man’s- 
help,  and  when  man  is  obliged  to  lend  a hand  to  save  his  crop,  he 
should  do  so  promptly  and  ungrudingly. 


Fig.  27. — Ditch  barrier  used  in  protecting  wheat  fields  from  the  migrating  army  worms 


Cutworms  (Noctuidae) . — There  are  a great  many  species  of 
cutworms  but  as  their  life  habits  and  work  are  similar  they  will  be 
considered  as  a single  pest.  They  attack  various  crops  but  their 
work  is  most  noticeable  where  corn  follows  infested  sod  plowed  in 
the  spring. 

Description. — The  injury  is  done  by  the  caterpillar  and  most 
farmers  are  familiar  with  the  smooth  dull-colored  cutworms.  They 
vary  in  size  and  color  markings  and  when  found  their  bodies  are 
usually  tightly  stuffed  with  food  and  curled  up.  The  parent  moths 
vary  even  more  than  the  caterpillar  in  size  and  general  appearance. 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


33 


Fig.  28. — Variegated  Cutworm:  a,  Moth;  b,  cutworm  feeding;  c, 

cutworm  in  curled  position;  d,  dorsal  view  of  cutworm;  e,  egg  en- 
larged; f,  egg  mass  on  twig.  (From  Howard,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agri- 
culture) 


Fig.  29. — Greasy  Cutworm 

back  and  side  view  enlarged. 
(After  Forbes) 


Fig.  30. — Greasy  Cutworm;  adult  moth 
natural  size.  (After  Forbes) 


Fig.  31. — Red-legged  Grasshopper; 
natural  size.  (After  Forbes) 


34  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


They  fly  at  night  and  are  usually  dull-colored  and  expand  from 
about  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a half. 

Life  History. — The  life  cycle  of  the  different  species  varies. 
They  may  pass  the  winter  as  the  caterpillar,  pupa,  or  adult  moth. 
The  caterpillars  are  most  abundant  and  destructive  in  the  spring. 
These  are  usually  full-fed  by  summer  and  the  moths  emerge  to  lay 
eggs  for  the  next  brood.  There  is  usually  only  one  generation  a 
year  in  Missouri. 

Injury. — After  the  cutworms  are  half-grown  they  are  voracious 
feeders.  They  often  cut  off  all  the  young  corn,  making  it  neces- 
sary for  the  farmer  to  replant.  One  caterpillar  may  cut  off  many 
plants  and  usually  eats  but  a small  portion  of  each  plant.  They 
feed  at  night  and  hide  under  clods  or  in  the  ground  during  the  day. 

Remedies. — As  a prevention,  plan  rotation  so  that  hill  crops 
will  not  follow  sod,  or  if  this  is  not  possible,  plow  sod  in  the  fall. 
As  a direct  remedy  use  poison  bran  mash.  This  can  be  sown  broad- 
cast or  distributed  in  patches  or  along  a line,  so  that  the  cut- 
worms find  it.  It  should  be  distributed  late  in  the  evening  or  dur- 
ing the  night. 


Fig.  32. — Differential  grasshopper  natural  size.  (From 
Forbes) 


Grasshoppers  ( Melanophas  femur-rubrum  and  differ  entialis) . 
— The  grasshoppers  are  pests  of  cultivated  crops  only  when  they 
migrate  from  meadows  or  pastures  in  the  summer  or  fall. 

Description. — There  are  two  forms  which  do  most  damage  in 
Missouri.  The  one  is  the  small  very  active  red-legged  grasshopper, 
and  the  other  is  the  larger,  heavier  so-called  “differential  grass- 
hopper.” The  large  bird  grasshopper  seldom  does  much  injury. 

Life  History. — Normally  these  grasshoppers  winter  in  the  egg 
stage  in  packets  underground,  tho  some  eggs  may  hatch  in  the  fall 
and  the  young  hoppers  live  thru  mild  winters  and  be  ready  to  feed 
in  the  spring.  There  is  only  one  generation  each  year,  the  young 
hoppers  maturing  in  the  fall  to  lay  eggs  for  the  next  year’s  crop. 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


35 


Injury. — Grasses  and  grass-like  crops  are  the  normal  food  of 
these  pests  and  so  long  as  the  supply  lasts  they  are  not  apt  to  mi- 
grate. When  necessary  they  may  feed  on  the  foliage  of  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  legumes,  truck  crops,  and  fruit  trees.  On  corn  they 
eat  off  the  soft  parts  of  blades  and  ears  weakening  the  plants  and 
injuring  the  yield. 

Remedies. — In  Missouri  the  grasshoppers  are  not  likely  ever  to 
become  a general  scourge  tho  each  year  they  do  considerable  dam- 
age. If  it  should  ever  be  necessary,  a systematic  campaign  to  de- 
stroy the  eggs  in  the  fall  by  discing  and  plowing  will  control  the 
pest.  This  together  with  poison  bait  early  in  the  summer  is  the 
best  means  of  keeping  the  pest  under  control.  The  “Criddle  mix- 
ture” is  made  by  mixing  together  a barrel  of  fresh  horse  manure, 
one  pound  of  salt  and  one  pound  of  Paris  green.  This  is  then 
sown  broadcast  over  the  infested  fields  in  strips.  The  bran  mash, 
however,  is  better  than  the  “Criddle  Mixture.” 

Grass  Leaf-hoppers  (Jassidae) . — There  are  a great  many  spe- 
cies of  these  small  sap-sucking  insects.  Some  of  them  may  be 
quite  destructive  to  wheat,  rye,  legumes  and  other  crops  as  well  as 
to  grasses.  They  vary  in  size  and  color,  tho  most  of  them  are  of 
the  same  general  wedge-shape.  They  are  very  active  and,  as  the 
name  implies,  hop  readily.  They  are  not  related  to  the  grasshop- 
pers however. 

Life  History. — But  little  is  known  of  their  development  and 
life  cycle,  tho  many  are  known  to  winter  in  rubbish,  which  makes 
it  possible  to  reach  them  with  winter  burning  of  rubbish,  dead 
grass,  and  other  materials  in  which  they  may  be  harboring.  Pas- 
turing, dragging,  rolling,  and  discing  of  infested  crops  where  pos- 
sible will  also  help  to  aggravate  and  drive  out  the  pest.  Better 
and  more  effective  remedies  are  needed  to  control  these. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  STORED  GRAINS  AND  SEEDS 

There  are  two  groups  of  insects  which  affect  stored  products, 
moths  and  beetles.  In  the  first  case  the  caterpillar  does  the  in- 
jury while  in  the  second  case  both  the  grub  and  the  parent  beetle 
may  feed.  All  pests  of  . stored  grain  are  commonly  spoken  of  as 
grain  “weevils.” 

Beetles. — In  this  state  we  have  more  or  less  trouble  with  the 
small,  brown  “saw-toothed  grain-beetle”  ( Silvanis  surinamensis) , 
the  small,  brown  snout  beetle  or  “granary  weevil”  ( Calandria 
granaria),  and  the  “Cadelle”  ( Tenebroides  mauritanicus) , a flat 


36  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


* 


Fig.  33. — Grain  Weevil:  a,  Larva; 
b,  pupa;  c,  adult  all  much  enlarged. 

(After  Howard,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agri- 
culture) 


Fig.  34. — Angoumois  Grain  Moth:  a,  Larva;  b,  pupa; 
c,  adult  moth;  d,  wings;  e,  egg;  f,  larva  in  grain.  Fig- 
ures all  enlarged  except  f.  (After  Howard,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture) 


Fig.  35. — Angoumois 

Grain  Moth  showing 
work  of  pest  on  ear  of 
corn.  (After  Riley) 


beetle  whose  grub  is  milky  white  and  when  full-fed  nearly  an  inch  long. 
These  beetles  may  all  be  found  feeding  in  the  same  bin. 

Besides  these  there  are  also  the  bean  and  pea  weevils  (Bruchus) . 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


37 


The  bean  and  cowpea  weevils  continue  to  breed  and  feed  in 
storage  while  the  garden-pea  weevil  does  not. 

Moths. — In  this  state  the  most  important  forms  attacking 
grain  are  the  small  grayish  “Angoumois  grain  moth”  ( Sitotroga 
cerealella)  and  the  slightly  larger  “Indian  meal-moth”  ( Plodia  in- 
terpunctella) , tho  in  mills  the  “Mediterranean  flour  moth”  ( Ephes - 
tia  kuehniella)  and  the  “meal  snout-moth”  ( Pyralis  farinalis ) may 
do  much  damage.  The  caterpillar  of  the  first  moth  bores  into  the 
grain  while  the  caterpillar  of  the  second  spins  some  silk  and  feeds 
more  on  the  surface,  eating  out  the  germ  of  the  seed,  especially 
wheat.  The  caterpillars  of  the  last  two  moths  ruin  much  grain  and 
milling  products  besides  clogging  pipes  with  their  silk  webs. 

Remedies. — Fumigation  is  most  effective  for  all  these  stored 
grain  and  seed  pests.  Carbon  bi-sulphide  is  to  be  preferred  where 
it  can  be  placed  in  shallow  vessels  on  the  top  of  the  infested  grain 
so  that  its  fumes,  which  are  heavier  than  air,  may  pass  down  thru 
the  grain  reaching  and  destroying  the  pests.  The  eggs  may  not 
always  be  destroyed  and  a second  fumigation  may  be  necessary. 
From  one  to  five  pounds  of  carbon  bi-sulphide  are  necessary  for 
1000  cubic  feet  of  space,  depending  upon  temperature  and  freedom 
of  the  bins  from  cracks. 

Where  the  granary  or  mill  can  be  closed  tightly  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas  may  be  used.  This  gas  is  a deadly  poison  and  must  be 
used  with  care.  In  some  cases  heat  can  be  used  in  mills  and  ele- 
vators in  preference  to  gas.  Insects  cannot  long  survive  when  they 
are  subjected  to  a temperature  of  about  120°  F. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  COTTON 

Cotton  growing  is  restricted  to  a few  of  the  southern  counties 
of  the  state  and  fortunately  cotton  there  is  not  severely  injured  by 
many  insects.  The  “cotton  boll-weevil”  has  not  yet  reached  that 
region  and  probably  never  will.  The  common  pests  such  as  grubs, 
cutworms,  etc.,  which  attack  the  crop  can  be  controlled  as  describ- 
ed for  other  crops. 

Cotton  Worm  ( Alabama  argillacea  Hbn.). — This  pest  is  more 
or  less  destructive  every  year  in  the  cotton  belt  of  the  south  and 
often  the  moths  migrate  northward  when  Missouri’s  cotton  crop 
suffers.  During  the  northward  migration  of  the  moths  they  at- 
tack ripening  fruit  doing  much  damage  to  it. 

Description.  The  parent  is  olive  brown  with  a purplish  lustre 
and  expands  nearly  one  and  one-half  inches.  Date  in  the  fall  these 


38  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  170 


Fig.  36. — Cotton  Worm:  a,  Moth;  b,  larva;  c,  pupa;  d,  pupa  in  rolled  leaf;  e,  injured 

cotton  plant 


moths  are  attracted  to  lights  along  with  the  army  worm  moth. 
The  stripped  caterpillar  is  slender,  very  active  and  moves  about 
by  looping  like  a measuring  worm. 

Life  History. — In  the  south  the  moths  pass  the  winter  in  pro- 
tected places  and  during  the  summer  there  are  a number  of  genera- 


Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 


39 


tions.  In  this  state  most  of  their  injury  is  done  after  August.  The 
full-fed  caterpillars  pupate  in  a frail  cocoon  made  by  tying  together 
a leaf  with  a few  silk  threads. 

Injury. — The  caterpillars  seem  to  feed  entirely  on  cotton  and 
when  abundant  may  completely  strip  it  of  its  foliage,  greatly  re- 
ducing its  yield.  They  also  attack  the  squares  and  blossoms. 

Remedies. — The  pest  can  be  controlled  by  use  of  arsenicals 
and  when  it  begins  to  attack  cotton  arsenicals  should  be  applied 
promptly. 

Cotton  Boll-worm,  ( Heliothis  obsolcta  Fab.). — This  caterpillar 
is  the  same  one  which  has  already  been  discussed  as  the  “corn  ear- 
worm.”  It  is  very  destructive  to  cotton  some  seasons,  and,  as  in 
case  of  corn,  the  pest  is  difficult  to  control.  Winter  plowing  of  in- 
fested fields,  the  use  of  arsenicals  when  the  caterpillars  are  boring 
into  the  bolls  and  the  use  of  corn  as  a trap  crop  seem  to  be  the 
most  practical  methods  of  reaching  the  pest  and  protecting  cotton 
from  it. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  171 


AGRICULTURAL  LIME 


/ ; 


Ftg.  1. — A lime  spreader  at  work 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
JUNE,  1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
C.  B.  ROLLINS,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Columbia  Kansas  City 

JOHN  H.  BRADLEY, 

Kennett 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D„  LL.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

April,  1920 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  A.  M. 

Emory  M.  Roller 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

E.  H.  Lehmann,  B.  S.  in  A.  E. 

Mack  M.  Jones 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Ray  E.  Miller,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

J.  H.  LonGwell,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  E.  Maneval,  Ph.  D. 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 
A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  C.  Dahlberg,  M.  S. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Percy  Werner,  Jr.,  A.  M. 

W.  H.  E.  Reed,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D 

E.  M.  McDonald,  B.  S 
C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

R.  M.  Green,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Ph.  D. 

H.  F.  Major,  B.  S.  ‘ A. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S.  H. 

H.  G.  SwartwouT,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

G.  W.  Hervey,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connoway,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 
R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
J.  G.  Babb,  A.  M.,  Secretary 
E.  H.  Hughes,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Dean 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 
George  Reeder,  Director  Weather  Bureau 
Miss  Bertha  Hite,1  Seed  Testing  Laboratory 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 


*In  service  of  U.  S Department  of  Agriculture. 


Agricultural  Lime 


M.  F.  Miller  and  H.  H.  Krusekopf 

Many  Missouri  soils  are  strikingly  in  need  of  lime.  This  has  been  shown 
by  chemical  tests  and  by  field  experiments.  The  removal  of  lime  from  the 
soil  with  the  resulting  development  of  acidity  or  sourness  takes 
place  sooner  or  later  in  all  soils  of  the  humid  region  which  are  sub- 
jected to  constant  cropping.  This  is  because  crops  remove  considerable 
quantities  of  lime  and  because  there  is  always  some  loss  thru  the 
drainage  water.  In  the  eastern  states  liming  has  been  practiced  almost 
since  the  beginning  of  agriculture  in  that  region.  This  has  been  due 
partly  to  the  fact  that  many  eastern  soils  were  originally  poorly  sup- 
plied with  lime  and  partly  to  the  more  intensive  agriculture  practiced. 
The  soils  of  the  corn  belt  were  originally  rather  well  supplied  with  lime, 
altho  in  recent  years  they  have  begun  to  show  a need  of  it.  As  a result, 
liming  is  extending  westward  and  it  is  now  more  or  less  common  in  all 
the  corn-belt  states.  The  extent  of  the  interest  in  liming  among  Mis- 
souri farmers  is  shown  by  the  number  of  inquiries  which  are  being  received 
by  the  Experiment  Station. 

MISSOURI  SOILS  NEEDING  LIME- 

The  soil  analyses  which  have  been  made  at  the  Missouri  Agriculture 
Experiment  Station  are  not  sufficient  in  number  to  make  possible  an 
accurate  statement  of  the  needs  of  all  soil  types  in  the  state,  but  a suf- 
ficient amount  of  data  is  available  to  show  that  large  areas  of  soil  need 
liming.  Of  the  total  number  of  samples  examined,  representing  in  all  160 
soil  types,  approximately  two-thirds  have  shown  some  need  of  lime.  This 
need  varies  from  insignificant  quantities,  to  five  or  six  tons  of  ground 
limestone  to  the  acre,  considering  the  surface  seven  inches  of  soil  as  the 
basis  for  comparison.  Approximately  one-fourth  of  the  samples  have 
shown  a lime  need  of  two  tons  or  more  in  this  surface  soil-layer. 

No  very  accurate  statement  can  be  made  as  to  the  lands  needing  lime 
most,  since  this  varies  materially  in  the  same  soil  type.  In  general,  how- 
ever the  level  prairies  of  northeast  and  southwest  Missouri  commonly 
need  lime.  Considerable  areas  of  the  rolling  prairies  in  both  north  and 
south  Missouri  also  need  it,  as  well  as  much  of  the  older  farmed  timoer 
lands.  Many  of  the  better  limestone  lands  of  the  state  need  little  lime, 
altho  the  poorer  limestone  lands  often  need  it  badly.  The  fact  that  a 
soil  is  derived  from  limestone  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  surface 
soil  or  the  upper  subsoil  is  sufficiently  supplied  with  lime,  since  it  may 
have  been  removed  almost  entirely  since  the  soil’s  formation.  Many 
farmers  believe  that  bottom  land  soils  are  usually  sour,  but  such  is  not 
necessarily  the  case.  As  a matter  of  fact  the  best  bottom  lands,  par- 
ticularly the  newer  bottoms,  subject  to  occasional  overflow,  rarely  need 
lime.  Bottom  and  second  bottom  soils  of  a gray  color,  especially  where 

*A  revision  of  Bulletin  146. 


4 Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


underlaid  by  a light  gray  layer  just  beneath  the  soil,  practically  always 
need  lime.  The  rough  to  rolling  brown  loess  soil  (Knox  and  Memphis 
silt  loams)  bordering  the  bottom  lands  of  the  Missouri  and  Mis- 
sissippi rivers  and  found  in  largest  aieas  from  the  center  of  the  state  to 
the  northwest  corner  needs  little  lime,  especially  in  the  western  half. 

The  foregoing  statements  are  necessarily  general.  They  do  not  apply 
to  all  soils  in  the  regions  mentioned  but  to  the  more  important  ones. 
A careful  test  is  the  only  means  of  determining  with  a certainty  a soil’s 
need  of  lime.  It  can  be  said  with  a reasonable  degree  of  confidence, 
however,  that  where  red  clover  grows  well,  little  or  no  lime  is  needed. 
On  the  other  hand,  red  clover  failures  are  not  always  due  to  a sour  soil. 
Poor  drainage,  a lack  of  fertility,  unfavorable  weather  conditions  or  the 
lack  of  organic  matter  and  available  phosphates  may  cause  a failure  or  a 
poor  growth  of  clover  even  where  a soil  has  sufficient  lime.  As  a rule, 
liming  is  beneficial  to  clover  where  it  is  failing  on  well-drained  land 
and  it  may  sometimes  almost  insure  a stand,  altho  manuring  or  the  use  of 
phosphates  may  often  be  necessary  in  addition.  There  is  a general  belief 
among  farmers  that  the  presence  of  red  sorrel  (rumex  acetosella)  indi- 
cates soil  acidity.  This  plant  thrives  on  a sour  soil  and  often,  where  it  has 
once  been  seeded  on  land  which  is  very  sour,  it  will  grow  luxuriantly, 
excluding  more  desirable  plants.  Patches  of  this  plant  are  more  or  less 
common  in  all  parts  of  Missouri  but  these  usually  come  from  the  seed 
introduced  with  red  clover  and  they  may  occur  on  any  soil.  It  is  only 
where  this  plant  predominates  to  the  exclusion  of  other  plants,  that  soil 
acidity  is  indicated  by  its  presence. 

TESTS  FOR  SOIL  ACIDITY. 

Simple  tests  for  soil  acidity  are  often  inaccurate  or  otherwise  un- 
satisfactory. What  is  known  as  the  muriatic-  or  hydrochloric-acid  test 
is  of  considerable  value.  This  test  is  made  as  follows:  Take  a small 

quantity  (an  ounce  or  two)  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  (sometimes  called 
muriatic  acid)  and  dilute  with  an  equal  amount  of  water.  Take  a handful 
of  the  soil  to  be  tested,  preferably  wet  and  worked  into  a mud  ball,  and 
add  a drop  of  this  weakened  acid.  If  an  unmistakable  and  distinct  bub- 
bling takes  place,  the  soil  is  practically  certain  to  need  no  lime;  the  more 
pronounced  the  bubbling,  the  more  certain  it  is  that  no  lime  is  needed. 
If  no  distinct  bubbling  takes  place  the  soil  either  contains  very  small 
amounts  of  carbonate  (the  lime  compound  which  keeps  soils  sweet)  or 
it  is  in  need  of  lime.  While  it  may  contain  too  small  a quantity  of  lime 
carbonate  to  give  an  unmistakable  showing,  it  may  still  contain  enough 
that  the  soil  is  not  markedly  sour.  Hence  this  test  gives  a conclu- 
sive result  only  when  the  soil  contains  considerable  lime  carbonate. 

The  litmus-paper  test,  of  which  so  much  is  said,  is  fairly  satisfac- 
tory in  the  hands  of  one  who  has  had  experience  with  it,  but  it  is  very 
likely  to  give  the  wrong  impression  to  one  who  is  using  it  for  the  first 
time.  The  test  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the  chemically  prepared  paper, 
known  as  blue  litmus  paper,  turns  pink  in  contact  with  acid.  The  prin- 
cipal difficulty  in  using  it  is  in  knowing  just  what  shade  of  pink  really 
indicates  soil  acidity.  The  paper  will  lose  its  blue  color  even  in  a neutral 


Agricultural  Lime 


5 


soil  and  turn  a purplish  color  which  may  be  mistaken  for  the  proper  pink 
color.  Again,  the  length  of  time  the  paper  is  in  contact  with  the  soil 
influences  the  color.  The  paper  should  turn  a distinct  pink  within  ten 
minutes  if  the  soil  is  very  acid.  The  College  of  Agriculture  has  prepared 
a sheet  of  directions  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  farmers  in  making  this 
test  and  this  will  be  sent  on  application. 

A rather  simple  chemical  test,  known  as  the  Truog  test,  has  come 
into  use  recently,  which  farmers  may  use  with  a fair  degree  of  satisfaction 
if  they  will  supply  themselves  with  the  necessary  apparatus  and  materials. 
The  method  is  being  used  at  the  Experiment  Station  with  good  results. 

The  standard  chemical  test  known  as  the  Veitch  test  is  the  one  used 
in  most  laboratories.  The  Experiment  Station  is  now  making  considerable 
numbers  of  the  Veitch  and  Truog  tests  for  farmers  where  the  soil  samples 
are  carefully  taken.  A sheet  giving  directions  for  taking  samples  for 
such  tests  will  be  sent  on  application  to  the  College  of  Agriculture. 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  LIMING 

The  primary  purpose  of  liming  is  to  supply  sufficient  lime  for  crop 
needs  and  to  neutralize  soil  acidity.  Certain  crops  require  more  lime 

than  they  are  able  to  secure  from  a soil  which  is  acid  and  which  is, 
therefore,  deficient  in  lime.  Furthermore  most  of  the  important  types 
of  soil  bacteria  are  injured  by  soil  acidity.  Consequently  a very  acid  soil 
should  be  limed  for  best  results. 

Among  other  effects  of  lime  might  be  mentioned  its  action  in  making 
clay  soils  more  friable.  The  ground  limestone  acts  rather  slowly  in  this 
respect,  however,  and  it  must  be  supplied  in  rather  large  quantities  for 
a marked  physical  effect.  Burned  lime  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the 
amounts  of  available  plant  food  in  the  soil,  altho  the  effect  of  ground 
limestone  in  this  respect  is  not  so  marked. 

Lime  can  scarcely  be  classed  as  a fertilizer  in  the  common  use  of 
the  term  since  a fertilizer  is  a substance  added  to  the  soil  solely  for 
supplying  needed  plant  food.  The  action  of  lime  is  usually  not  so  im- 
mediate as  that  of  a fertilizer,  and  as  it  is  applied  in  considerable  quan- 
tities its  effect  extends  over  a longer  period.  Where  the  soil  needs  lime 
badly,  however,  and  where  a liberal  application  is  given,  the  effect  on 
such  crops  as  clover  and  alfalfa  may  be  immediate  and  very  striking. 

THE  RESPONSE  OF  DIFFERENT  CROPS  TO  LIMING 

Considerable  experimental  work  has  been  done  at  experiment  stations1 
in  determining  the  response  of  various  crops  to  liming.  The  results  se- 
cured are  naturally  influenced  by  the  amount  of  lime  needed  by  the  soil,  as 
well  as  by  other  factors,  so  that  the  evidence  is  rather  conflicting  in  the  case 
of  certain  crops.  There  is,  however,  a striking  agreement  in  the  case  of 
some  crops  and  a rather  general  agreement  in  the  case  of  others. 

Among  the  legume  crops,  which  respond  best  to  liming,  are  al- 

1Hartwell,  B.  L.  and  Damon,  S.  C.  The  Comparative  Effect  on  Different  Kinds 
of  Plants  of  Liming  an  Acid  Soil.  R.  I.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  160.  Mooers,  C.  A.  Liming  fcr 
Tennessee  Soils.  Tenn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  97. 


6 Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


falfa,  sweet  clover  and  the  common  clovers.  Canada  field  peas,  gar- 
den peas  and  soybeans  usually  give  a fair  response.  Alsike  clover 
will  do  better  than  red  clover  on  poor  or  wet  land  and  an  impression  has 
spread  among  the  farmers  that  it  will  do  better  than  red  clover  on  acid 
soil.  The  indications  are,  however,  that  it  will  respond  to  liming  almost 
as  well  as  red  clover  on  either  drained  or  undrained  land  which  is  very 
acid,  altho  it  is  probably  not  quite  so  susceptible  to  acidity  as  red  clover. 
Alfalfa  and  sweet  clover  give  the  best  response  of  any  of  the  common  leg- 
umes. They  require  much  lime  for  their  growth. 

Among  the  legumes  which  usually  are  little  benefited  by  liming  are 
Japanese  clover,  beans,  cowpeas  and  peanuts. 

The  common  non-legumes  which  are  more  or  less  benefited  by  lim- 


FiG.  2. — Alfalfa  on  the  Carthage  experiment  field.  Two  and  one-fourth  tons  of 
ground  limestone  increased  the  yield  of  alfalfa  on  this  field  3307  pounds  per  acre,  as 
an  average  of  two  years’  cuttings. 


ing  are  corn,  wheat,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  Kentucky  blue  grass  and 
sorghum.  Those  giving  little  or  no  response  to  lime  are  rye,  oats,  Irish 
potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  cotton,  strawberries  and  red  top  grass.  Lime 
has  been  found  directly  injurious  to  watermelons. 

The  foregoing  statements  have  to  do  with  the  direct  effect  of  lime 
upon  the  various  crops.  It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  crops 
which  may  give  little  or  no  direct  response  to  liming  may  be  greatly  bene- 
fited thru  growing  clover  or  other  legumes  on  land  which  is  too  acid  to 
grow  these  legumes  without  lime. 

The  results  obtained  by  the  use  of  lime  on  the  various  outlying  soil 
experiment  fields  of  the  Experiment  Station  give  an  idea  of  the  results  to 
be  expected  from  the  use  of  lime  in  Missouri.  These  experiments  have 
been  in  progress  for  a number  of  years  and  many  of  the  important  soil 
types  in  the  state  have  been  included.  While  the  fields  commonly  rep- 
resent medium  to  poor  lands,  which  in  most  cases  are  somewhat  more  in 
need  of  lime  than  are  the  better  lands  of  the  state,  the  average  results  give 
a good  idea  of  what  may  be  expected.  The  following  table  shows  the  aver- 


Agricultural  Lime 


7 


age  returns  which  have  been  secured  on  the  crops  commonly  grown  in 
these  experiments.  The  increases  given  are  the  averages  of  all  the  trials 
for  the  various  crops.  The  lime  used  has  always  been  in  the  form  of 
ground  limestone.  This  has  been  applied  at  somewhat  different  rates, 
the  first  application  usually  being  from  one  to  two  tons,  followed  by  a 
second  application  of  approximately  one  ton  after  six  years  of  cropping. 
The  average  application  during  the  twelve  years  included  in  these  averages 
has  been  approximately  three  tons  per  acre  or  one  ton  per  rotation  of 
four  years.  The  cost  of  the  lime  has  varied,  rarely  reaching  four  dollars 
per  ton  applied  to  the  land;  but  this  figure  has  been  used  in  the  calcula- 
tions since  at  present  prices  it  can  usually  be  applied  at  a cost  not  ex- 
ceeding this  amount. 


Fig.  3. — Clover  on  the  Vandalia  experiment  field.  A stand  of  clover  secured  by- 
liming,  on  the  northeast  Missouri  level  prairie.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  plots 
which  received  no  lime  (shown  behind  the  man  in  the  picture)  have  practically  no 
clover. 


Effect  of  Limestone  on  Crop  Yields  and  Net  Returns 
Average  from  all  Experiment  Fields , 1907-19 


Crop 

Average  increase 
per  acre  due 
to  limestone 

Value  of 
increase  per 
acre 

Annual  cost 
of  treatment 
per  acre 

Annual  net 
return  per 
acre 

Corn  

3.06  bu. 

$3.06 

$1.00 

$2.06 

Oats  

—1.20  bu. 

—.78 

1.00 

—1.78 

Wheat  

1.13  bu. 

2.26 

1.00 

1.26 

Clover  

443  lbs. 

5.54 

1.00 

4.54 

Soybeans  

167  lbs. 

2.08 

1.00 

1.08 

Total  return  from  one  ton  of  limestone  during  rotation  of  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  clover — $10.08. 

Net  return  (charging  for  limestone  at  the  rate  of  $1  an  acre  a year  or 
$4.00  a ton) — $6.08. 


8 Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


Total  return  from  one  ton  of  limestone  during  rotation  of  corn,  soy- 
beans, wheat,  clover — $12.94. 

Net  return  (charging  for  limestone  at  the  rate  of  $1  an  acre  a year  or 
$4.00  a ton)  $8.94. 

Crop  values  used  are  as  follows:  Corn  $1,  oats  65  cents,  wheat  $2, 
clover  $25  and  soybeans  $25. 

Experiments  in  liming  alfalfa  have  been  carried  on  as  a part  of  a 
series  of  cooperative  experiments  with  farmers  for  a number  of  years, 
and  in  addition  certain  trials  have  been  made  on  some  of  the  regular  out- 
lying experiment  fields.  These  have  been  reported  in  previous  publica- 
tions1 from  this  station.  While  some  of  these  experiments  have  given 
no  return  from  liming,  some  have  given  very  striking  returns. 


Fig.  4. — This  farmer  limed  a strip  across  the  field  and  afterward  sowed  the  field  to 
clover.  The  lesult  was  excellent  clover  on  the  limed  strip  and  little  or  none  elsewhere. 


It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  said  that  lime  cannot  be  used 
as  a fertilizer  is  used,  in  small  quantities  or  even  in  large  quantities,  and 
a remunerative  return  expected  on  the  first  crop  of  wheat,  oats  or  corn, 
altho  large  returns  may  sometimes  be  secured  on  the  first  crop  of  clover 
or  alfalfa.  The  effect  of  liming  is  rather  that  of  a general  soil  improving 
agency  for  most  crops,  which  raises  the  general  level  of  yields.  Its  prin- 
cipal function  is  that  of  supplying  lime  and  of  sweetening  a sour  soil  so 
that  the  very  important  soil  building  legumes  may  be  more  satisfactorily 

1Miller,  M.  F.  and  Hutchison,  C.  B.  Cooperative  Experiments  with  Alfalfa.  Missouri 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bulletin  106. 

Hutchison,  C.  B.  and  Douglas,  T.  R.  Experiments  with  Farm  Crops  in’  Southwest  Mis- 
souri. Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bulletin  123. 


Agricultural  Lime 


9 


produced.  Liming  may  well  be  compared  to  drainage,  in  being  one  of  the 
fundamental  methods  of  soil  improvement  which,  on  sour  soils,  should 
precede  fertilization  and  other  methods  of  increasing  yields. 

FORMS  OF  LIME 

There  are  three  lime  compounds  which  may  be  used  for  agricultural 
purposes.  These  are  the  lime  oxide,  commonly  called  burned  lime  or 
lump  lime;  the  lime  hydrate,  usually  called  water-slaked  lime;  and  the  lime 
carbonate,  such  as  ground  limestone  or  old  air  slaked  lime.  The  lumo 
lime  which  is  commonly  sold  in  barrels  in  this  state  cannot  be  ap- 


Fig.  5. — Young  clover  on  the  Hurdland  soil  experiment  field.  The  plot  shown 
above  received  no  lime;  the  one  shown  below  received  ground  limestone  at  the  rate 
of  8000  pounds  per  acre  or  enough  to  sweeten  the  surface  seven  inches  of  soil. 
Otherwise  these  plots  were  treated  exactly  the  same. 


10  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


plied  in  this  form  without  slaking.  In  the  eastern  states  where  lump 
lime  is  much  used,  it  is  often  piled  in  the  fields,  covered  with  earth  and 
allowed  to  slake  by  absorbing  moisture  from  the  earth  or  from  tains, 
after  which  it  is  scattered  and  worked  into  the  soil.  In  this  slaked  form 
the  lime  is  largely  in  the  form  of  the  hydrate  of  lime.  In  some  localities 
the  lump  lime  is  ground  to  about  the  fineness  of  corn  meal,  then  scat- 
tered and  worked  into  the  soil,  where  it  is  allowed  to  slake.  There  is 
difficulty  in  handling  it,  however,  because  of  its  caustic  nature  and  the 
danger  of  air-slaking  during  shipping.  It  must  also  be  scattered  some- 
time before  a crop  is  put  in  because  of  the  danger  of  injuring  the  seed. 

Water-slaked  lime  or  lime  hydrate  is  being  sold,  to  a certain  extent, 
for  agricultural  purposes.  It  is  put  out  in  bags  by  certain  lime  companies 
in  a form  convenient  for  distribution.  Like  the  ground  lump  lime,  water 
slaked  lime  should  not  be  used  in  large  quantities  at  the  time  of  put- 
ting in  the  crop  as  it  is  somewhat  caustic,  altho  much  less  so  than  the 
lump  lime. 

The  lime  carbonate,  represented  on  the  market  principally  as  ground 
limestone,  is  the  most  common  form  of  agricultural  lime  in  Missouri.  It 
is  being  put  out  by  a number  of  companies  and  is  being  ground  to  various 
degrees  of  fineness.  This  form  of  lime  has  no  caustic  properties  and  may 
be  applied  at  any  time.  Old  air-slaked  lime  is  practically  all  lime  carbo- 
nate and  has  therefore  approximately  the  same  composition  as  ground 
limestone.  Fresh  air-slaked  lime  contains  large  quantities  of  lime  hy- 
drate, since  it  has  taken  up  moisture  from  the  air  in  slaking.  Air-slaked 
lime  from  the  kilns  may  contain  considerable  quantities  of  lump  lime, 
cinders  or  trash  and  must  usually  be  sifted  if  it  is  to  be  scattered  with 
a lime  distributor. 

The  kind  of  lime  to  use  should  be  determined  almost  entirely  on  the 
basis  of  the  amount  of  active  lime  (calcium  oxide)  one  can  buy  for  a dollar. 
In  order  to  determine  this  it  should  be  remembered  that  approximately 
2000  pounds  of  finely  ground  limestone,  or  old  air-slaked  lime,  is  required  to 
equal  1100  pounds  of  lump  lime,  or  1500  pounds  of  fresh  water-slaked  lime, 
where  all  are  made  from  a good  quality  of  high  calcium  limestone.  With 
a delivered  price  on  each,  one  can  figure  the  cheapest  form  in  terms  of 
active  lime  when  hauled  and  spread.  It  will  be  found  that  in  most 
localities,  excepting  those  within  wagon  haul  of  a lime  kiln,  the  ground 
limestone  will  be  the  cheapest  form  to  apply.  In  buying  such  a stone  it 
is  always  well  to  get  a definite  statement  from  the  company  as  to  the  per- 
cent of  carbonate  it  contains,  since  this  varies  considerably  with  dif- 
ferent quarries.  Moreover,  an  analysis  of  the  face  rock  of  a quarry  does 
not  always  show  the  composition  of  the  ground  limestone  produced.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  different  ledges  in  a quarry  will  often  vary 
in  composition,  and  to  the  further  fact  that  beds  of  flint  or  chert  fre- 
quently occur  which  are  not  considered  in  the  analysis  of  the  quarry  rock 
but  which  may  be  mixed  with  it  in  quarrying,  thus  giving  the  crushed 
stone  a much  lower  content  of  carbonates  than  the  limestone  itself. 


Agricultural  Lime 


11 


FINENESS  OF  GRINDING  LIMESTONE 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  fineness  to 
which  limestone  should  be  ground.  The  basis  for  comparison  is  that  of 
the  fineness  of  the  sieve  thru  which  it  passes.  For  instance,  a large  part 
of  the  limestone  on  the  market  is  ground  fine  enough  to  pass  a ten-mesh 
sieve;  that  is,  a sieve  with  ten  holes  to  the  linear  inch  or  one  hundred  to 
the  square  inch.  Some  of  the  coarser  of  these  commercial  grades  will 
pass  a four-mesh  sieve  only,  while  some  of  the  finer  grades  will  pass  a 
hundred-mesh  sieve. 

The  few  experiments  which  have  been  made  comparing  limestone  pul- 
verized to  different  degrees  of  fineness  show  that  it  is  the  fine  dust  which 
gives  most  immediate  results  in  sweetening  the  soil.  There  is  of  course 
some  immediate  effect  of  the  coarser  material  but  this  is  slight.  It  has 
been  shown  also  that  the  finer  the  material  the  more  rapid  is  its  loss  from 
the  soil,  other  things  being  equal.  This  fact  is  of  importance  in  determin- 
ing the  lasting  effect  of  the  limestone. 

From  the  experimental  evidence  at  hand  the  indications  are  that  it  is 
fairly  safe  to  estimate  the  proportion  of  limestone  which  passes  the 
forty-mesh  sieve  as  representing  the  approximate  amount  which  is  active 
in  the  soil  the  first  year.  The  per  cent  of  the  different  sized 
particles  in  ground  limestone  varies  considerably.  Sieve  analysis  indicates, 
however,  that  a product  all  of  which  will  pass  a ten-mesh  sieve  usually 
contains  from  60  to  70  per  cent  passing  a forty-mesh  sieve.  A ground 
limestone  which  is  so  coarse  that  it  passes  but  a four-mesh  sieve  usually 
contains  from  40  to  50  per  cent  that  will  pass  a forty-mesh  sieve;  thus  it 
would  contain  much  less  immediately  active  material  than  the  ten-mesh 
stone.  A number  of  companies  are  putting  out  an  eight-mesh  material. 
This  being  only  slightly  coarser  than  the  ten-mesh  stone,  is  quite  satis- 
factory for  agricultural  use. 

All  things  considered  it  seems  that  the  best  stone  to  use  is  one  ground 
fine  enough  to  pass  an  eight-mesh  or  a ten-mesh  sieve.  However,  where 
coarser  material  can  be  obtained  at  low  cost,  it  may  pay  to  use  it,  pro- 
vided larger  amounts  are  applied  so  as  to  supply  about  the  same  amount 
of  fine  dust  as  when  eight  or  ten-mesh  material  is  used.  This  question  must 
be  decided,  therefore,  upon  the  relative  costs  of  the  different  grades  of  mate- 
rial. It  would  rarely  be  wise  to  consider  coarser  material  than  that  pass- 
ing a four-mesh  sieve. 

COST  OF  LIMESTONE 

The  price  at  which  ground  limestone  is  sold  at  the  different  commer- 
cial crushers  in  Missouri  varies  from  $1  to  $5  a ton.  The  material  varies 
both  in  purity  and  fineness  of  grinding.  The  lower  price  named,  in  most 
cases,  is  for  the  product  from  crushing  plants  which  crush  rock  for  con- 
crete and  road  building  purposes  and  sell  the  finer  material  for  agricultural 
use.  This  product  is  usually  the  screenings  which  pass  a four-  or  eight- 
mesh  sieve.  The  higher  price  mentioned  is  for  stone  of  a good  grade 
which  has  been  pulverized  to  a flour,  in  some  cases  all  of  it  passing  a 100- 
mesh  sieve. 

Recently,  some  crushing  companies  have  adopted  the  plan  of  quoting 


12  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


prices  on  their  product  according  to  its  degree  of  fineness  and  purity.  In 
general,  ground  limestone  all  of  which  will  pass  an  eight-  or  ten-mesh 
sieve  and  of  satisfactory  purity  for  agricultural  use  can  be  purchased  in 
carload  lots  for  $1.50  to  $2.50  a ton,  f.  o.  b.  cars  at  crusher. 

Where  limestone  can  be  shipped  direct  to  the  user  over  one  road,  the 
freight  rates  are  reasonable,  so  that  the  material  can  be  shipped  a con- 
siderable distance  without  excessive  cost.  However,  when  it  is  necessary 
to  ship  over  two  railroads,  each  road  has  a minimum  charge,  thus  making 
the  freight  rather  high,  even  for  short  hauls. 

SMALL  GRINDERS  FOR  HOME  GRINDING  OF  LIMESTONE 

Farmers  remote  from  the  railroad  or  from  a satisfactory  lime  supply 
will  doubtless  find  it  more  economical  to  grind  their  own  limestone  where 
a good  rock  is  available.1  Various  companies  are  now  putting  small  porta- 


Fig.  6. — A portable  limestone  grinder  in  operation. 

ble  limestone  grinders  on  the  market.  The  cost  of  these  grinders  depends 
principally  upon  their  size,  but  those  suitable  for  the  use  of  individual 
farmers,  or  groups  of  farmers  cooperating  in  grinding  stone,  will  cost  from 
$500  to  $2,400.  Such  grinders  have  a capacity  of  from  one  to  five  tons 
an  hour,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  machine,  the  kind  and  dryness  of 
the  rock  and  the  fineness  of  grinding.  A fair  size  for  community  work  is 
a machine  having  a capacity  of  two.  or  three  tons  an  hour,  costing  $1,200  to 
$1,500  and  requiring  a twenty  to  twenty-five  horse  power  engine.  The 
cheaper  machines  mentioned  are  mostly  single  action  pulverizers.  They 
are  being  used  with  satisfaction. 

1Those  interested  in  grinding  limestone  should  write  the  College  of  Agriculture  with 
reference  to  having  the  quality  of  the  stone  tested  before  preparing  to  grind. 


Agricultural  Lime 


13 


In  selecting  a grinder  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  will  handle 
pieces  of  stone  at  least  four  inches  in  thickness.  Some  grinders  will  not 
handle  rock  which  has  not  first  been  crushed  by  another  machine  or  broken 
by  hand.  The  best  of  these  large-size,  portable  machines  will  take  in  stone 
measuring  from  four  to  six  inches  thick  and  eight  to  twelve  inches  wide. 

In  estimating  the  cost  of  grinding  limestone  on  the  farm,  the  interest 
and  depreciation  on  the  outfit,  the  labor,  fuel,  oil,  repairs  and  the  cost  of 
quarrying  the  stone  must  be  considered.  While  the  cost  of  quarrying  varies 
widely  under  different  conditions  it  seems  that  seventy-five  cents  a ton  is 
about  the  average  cost  for  this  work.  The  cost  of  grinding  varies  in  most 
cases  from  $1  to  $2  a ton.  In  some  localities  a man  owning  a portable 
crusher  goes  from  farm  to  farm  and  does  grinding  for  farmers  who  have 
previously  quarried  the  stone.  The  charge  for  this  grinding,  exclusive  of 
quarrying,  varies  from  $1  to  $2  a ton.  A group  of  farmers  cooperating  in 
buying  a grinder  with  a capacity  of  two  to  three  tons  an  hour  might  rea- 
sonably expect  to  get  the  stone  quarried  and  ground  to  an  eight-  or  ten- 
mesh  fineness  at  a -cost  varying  from  $2  to  $2.25  a ton  where  the  crew  is 
efficient.  It  is  not  unusual,  however,  to  have  the  cost  exceed  this  amount. 
So  much  depends  upon  the  accessibility  and  ease  of  quarrying  the  stone, 
the  cost  of  power  and  the  efficiency  of  the  crew  that  the  price  is  certain  to 
vary  widely  under  varying  conditions.  The  limestone  is  often  found  in 
deep  valleys,  or  rough  country,  so  that  hauling  the  stone  becomes  an  im- 
portant item.  A mistake  is  often  made  in  not  providing  enough  power  for 
efficient  grinding,  which  greatly  increases  the  cost  to  the  ton.  It  must 
be  remembered  too  that  the  rock  must  be  comparatively  dry  to  grind 
readily  and  this  often  necessitates  loss  of  time  when  the  quarried  stone  is 
wet  or  covered  with  snow. 

An  investigation  has  been  made  of  the  cost  of  producing  ground  lime- 
stone among  the  men  who  have  used  these  portable  crushers  in  this  and 
other  states.  While  the  estimates  vary  widely,  a fair  average  of  the  costs 
of  the  separate  items,  under  what  might  be  termed  favorable  conditions 
and  efficient  management,  would  be  as  follows: 


Cost  for 
20  tons 

Cost  per 
ton 

QUARRYING  STONE  (20  tons)— 

(Drilling,  shooting  and  sledging  stone  to  proper  size  for  crushing 
ing)  3 men,  1 day  @ $5  

$15.00 

$0.75 

GRINDING  (20  tons)  — 

Engineer  and  25  H.  P.  Engine,  1 day  @ $12  (including  fuel 
and  oil)  

12.00 

.60 

One  foreman,  1 day  @ $4  

4.00 

.20 

Two  helpers,  1 day  @ $3  

6.00 

.30 

CHARGE  FOR  CRUSHER— 

(Based  on  crusher  of  20  tons  a day  capacity,  approximate 
present  value  $1,400) 

(a)  10%  annual  depreciation  in  value  $140.00 

(b)  5%  annually  for  replacing  worn  parts  70.00 

(c)  7%  annual  interest  on  investment  98.00 

Total  annual  charge  $308.00 

Estimated  annual  run  in  average  community, 

60  days  at  20  tons  a day  1200  tons 

Charge  for  use  of  crusher  on  the  basis  of  these  estimates 

5.00 

.25 

Total  cost  

$42.00 

$2.10 

14  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 

It  will  be  noticed  that  labor  for  quarrying  has  been  charged  at  $5  a day. 
This  may  seem  too  high.  However,  if  three  men  quarry  and  prepare  twenty 
tons  of  stone  for  the  crusher  daily  for  any  length  of  time,  they  will  need 
to  be  experienced  and  efficient  in  this  work.  Perhaps  cheaper  labor  can 
be  secured  but  in  most  cases  the  total  cost  of  quarrying  and  preparing 
stone  for  the  crusher  will  amount  to  seventy-five  cents  a ton. 

The  charge  for  the  use  of  the  crusher  is  based  on  a $1,400  cru§her  used 
for  a 60-day,  1200-ton  annual  run.  Should  the  annual  tonnage  vary,  the 
depreciation  in  value  and  cost  of  replacing  wearing  parts  would  vary  ac- 
cordingly without  appreciably  affecting  the  charge  per  ton. 

Whether  it  will  be  cheaper  to  grind  the  limestone  in  the  neighborhood 
or  buy  it  and  ship  it  in,  will  depend  upon  the  delivered  price  at  the  station, 
the  length  of  the  haul,  the  quality  and  accessibility  of  the  limestone  in  the 
community  and  the  cost  of  grinding.  It  would  seem  from  the  information 
available  at  this  time  that,  generally  speaking,  the  local  grinding  of  stone 
will  be  limited  to  those  communities  in  which  good  stone  is  readily  ac- 
cessible and  which  are  located  at  such  a distance  from  the  railroad  that 
the  cost  of  hauling  becomes  excessive. 

AMOUNT  OF  LIME  TO  USE 

The  amount  of  lime  to  use  depends  primarily  on  the  deficiency  of  lime 
in  the  soil  and  the  kind  of  lime.  As  ground  limestone  is  almost  invariably 
the  cheapest  form  to  apply  in  Missouri,  recommendations  are  usually  based 
upon  this  material.  The  determinations  which  have  been  made  as  to  the 
amount  of  ground  limestone  required  for  the  surface  seven  inches 
of  an  acre  of  the  various  soils  of  Missouri  show  a variation  from  nothing 
up  to  five  or  six  tons.  A few  have  shown  even  higher  lime  requirements. 
These  determinations  are  based  on  the  surface  seven  inches  of  an  acre 
because  it  is  in  this  layer  that  plant  roots  and  beneficial  bacteria  are  most 
active. 

As  a general  rule  it  can  be  said  that  applications  of  one  to  two  and 
one-half  tons  of  a good  grade  of  ground  limestone  would  be  likely  to  give 
good  results.  The  amount  to  apply  depends  not  only  upon  the  lime  need  of 
the  soil  but  also  upon  its  fertility.  Crops  grown  on  fertile  soils  do  not 
seem  to  be  injured  so  much  by  lack  of  lime  as  when  grown  on  poorer  soils. 
Since  lime  is  being  continually  removed  from  the  soil  it  is  necessary  to 
lime  at  more  or  less  regular  intervals  . Applications  of  one  to  one  and  a 
half  tons  of  ground  limestone  once  in  four  to  six  years  would  be  considered 
reasonable  rates  on  soils  showing  a need  for  lime  seriously  to  affect  the 
growth  of  clover.  On  very  acid  soils  larger  amounts  may  often  be  applied 
with  profit.  It  is  commonly  recommended  to  make  the  first  application 
heavier  than  the  succeeding  ones.  An  acidity  test  of  the  soil  should  be 
made  and  the  need  for  lime  determined  before  undertaking  the  matter 
of  liming.1 

METHODS  OF  APPLICATION 

Lime  should  be  applied  on  plowed  land  and  worked  into  the  surface 
three  to  five  inches  of  soil  with  disk  and  harrow.  It  may  be  plowed  under, 


JThe  College  of  Agriculture  will  give  such  assistance  as  is  possible  in  determining  the- 
acidity  of  soils. 


Agricultural  Lime 


15 


particularly  where  the  land  is  disked  before  plowing,  but  for  most  satis- 
factory results  the  lime  should  be  well  mixed  with  soil.  Top  dressing  is 
recommended  only  in  the  case  of  permanent  pastures  or  meadows  in  which 
case  the  loose,  porous  nature  of  the  sod  allows  the  lime  to  wash  into  the 
soil  much  better  than  on  other  lands. 

The  fall  season  is  usually  the  best  time  of  year  to  apply  lime  since  the 
roads  are  generally  best  at  that  time  and  the  soil  is  not  likely  to  be  wet. 
There  is  also  more  leisure  of  men  and  teams  at  that  season.  Where  wheat 
is  grown,  lime  can  well  be  applied  on  land  prepared  for  this  crop.  Little 
return  must  be  expected  on  the  wheat  but  the  clover  crop  following  should 
be  greatly  benefited,  assuming  of  course  that  the  soil  needs  liming,  that 
it  is  sufficiently  fertile  to  grow  clover  and  that  it  is  well  drained.  It  may 
be  applied,  however,  at  any  time  when  the  land  is  being  prepared  for  a 
crop.  If  the  land  is  plowed  and  then  leveled  by  a disk  or  drag  harrow 
before  scattering  the  lime,  the  working  in  of  the  lime  may  serve  as  the 
final  preparation  of  the  seed  bed. 

Lime  is  most  readily  applied  with  a lime  spreader,  several  kinds  of 
which  are  now  on  the  market.1  These  spreaders  broadcast  a strip  from  six 
to  ten  feet  wide  depending  on  the  size,  and  the  spreading  is  done  evenly. 
They  may  be  hitched  behind  the  wagon  and  the  lime  shoveled  into  the  hop- 
per from  the  wagon  box  or  they  may  be  filled  at  intervals  and  handled  as  a 
drill.  As  this  is  an  implement  which  is  used  but  a very  few  days  during 
the  year  it  is  best  for  several  farmers  in  a neighborhood  to  buy  one  in  co- 
operation. 

A manure  spreader  may  be  used  for  spreading  lime  by  throwing  some 
manure  or  dirt  in  the  bottom  or  by  tacking  canvas  over  the  apron  to  pre- 
vent the  lime  sifting  thru.  The  apron  must  be  run  slowly  in  order  to  pre- 
vent too  heavy  spreading.  The  spreader  may  be  set  for  a given  number 
of  loads  per  acre  and  the  amount  of  lime  for  each  load  regulated  accord- 
ingly. Endgate  seeders  are  sometimes  used,  but  they  are  not  very  satis- 
factory, particularly  if  the  lime  is  fine  and  dry. 

A fertilizer  attachment  on  a grain  drill  may  be  used  for  applying  lime- 
stone but  unless  the  amount  to  be  applied  to  the  acre  is  small,  this  method 
is  slow.  Few  drills  will  handle  more  than  800  pounds  to  the  acre  so  that 
the  ground  must  be  gone  over  more  than  once.  Some  drills  having  larger 
capacities  have  been  placed  on  the  market  recently  but  where  much  lime  is 
required  a lime  spreader  is  to  be  preferred.  The  drill  has  the  advantage  of 
drilling  the  limestone  into  the  soil  but  further  mixing  is  necessary  if  the 
work  is  properly  done. 

It  is  possible  to  build  homemade  spreaders  at  a moderate  expense.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  a good-sized  hopper  mounted  on  substantial  wheels 
with  a shaft  passing  lengthwise  thru  the  hopper.  This  shaft  should  bear 
agitators  which  stir  the  lime  out  of  holes  in  the  hopper  bottom.  The  rate 
of  spreading  can  be  regulated  with  a slide  which  opens  or  closes  the  holes. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  work  of  practically  all  lime  spreaders  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  wetness  of  the  limestone.  It  is  often  very  difficult  to 
spread  wet  stone.  Where  farmers  grind  their  own  stone  it  is  usually  found 
advantageous  to  spread  the  limestone  as  fast  as  it  is  ground  and  not  allow 

1Lists  of  companies  handling  ground  limestone  and  lime  spreaders  will  be  furnished  on 
application  to  the  College  of  Agriculture. 


16  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


it  to  get  wet  before  spreading.  Limestone  which  is  shipped  in  is  best  han- 
dled in  closed  box  cars  and  it  should  be  spread  as  the  car  is  unloaded.  If 
possible  the  work  should  be  arranged  so  that  two  or  more  teams  haul  while 
one  spreads  the  limestone  in  the  field. 

Lime  may  be  scattered  by  hand  satisfactorily  if  the  area  to  be  covered 
is  small,  but  for  large  areas  hand  scattering  is  too  expensive.  It  may  be 
scattered  with  a shovel  from  a wagon  if  the  limestone  is  not  too  fine  and 
dry.  It  may  be  hauled  to  the  field,  dumped  in  piles  then  scattered  from 
the  ground.  Piles  of  two  hundred  pounds  approximately  fifty  feet  apart 
each  way,  will  give  about  two  tons  per  acre. 


MISSOURI  LIMESTONE  SUITABLE  FOR  AGRICULTURAL 

PURPOSES 

The  increasing  interest  shown  in  the  grinding  of  limestone  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  particularly  by  individual  farmers  and  groups  of  farm- 
ers, makes  it  important  that  information  be  supplied  as  to  the  location  in 
Missouri  of  suitable  limestone  outcrops.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  grind- 
ing of  limestone  is  to  become  a very  important  industry. 

Missouri  contains  great  deposits  of  high  grade  limestone  which  lend 
themselves  ideally  to  grinding.  The  wide  range  of  geological  formations 
which  have  the  proper  chemical  composition  for  making  agricultural  lime 
affords  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  raw  material  so  situated  as  to  be  avail- 
able for  economic  production.  There  are  few  counties  in  Missouri  which 
are  entirely  lacking  in  limestone  formations,  altho  many  of  the  rock  strata 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  are  not  well  suited  for  development.  Mis- 
souri is  the  largest  producer  of  lime  among  the  states  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  and  the  state  is  excelled  in  lime  production  by  only  five  others. 
This  large  production  indicates  the  possibilities  in  supplying  ground  lime- 
stone, for  in  general,  limestone  which  is  suited  for  the  making  of  lime  for 
the  trades  is  also  adapted  for  use  in  agriculture. 

The  quality  of  limestone  varies  both  chemically  and  physically,  within 
wide  limits.  Consequently  only  those  limestones  should  be  used  which  are 
relatively  pure  carbonate.  It  is  the  lime  and  magnesium  carbonates  which 
possess  the  alkaline  properties  for  neutralizing  the  soil  acids.  The  impure 
limestones  contain  more  or  less  material  other  than  carbonates,  such  as 
iron  compounds,  silica  and  clay.  These  impurities  when  present  in  suffi- 
cient amounts  give  rise  to  cherty  or  flinty  limestones,  to  argillaceous  or 
clayey  limestone,  and  others,  depending  on  the  amount  and  character  of 
the  impurity  present. 

The  composition  which  a limestone  should  have  for  making  good 
ground  limestone  for  agricultural  purposes,  depends  somewhat  on  con- 
ditions, but  in  general  it  may  be  stated  that  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  im- 
purity is  objectionable,  except  in  special  cases.  The  greater  the  proportion 
of  impurity,  the  greater  is  the  amount  of  stone  required  in  order  to  pro- 
duce a given  amount  of  calcium  and  magnesium  carbonate.  Thus,  a ton  of 
pure  limestone  will  produce  one  ton  of  carbonate,  but  to  produce  a like 
amount  from  a stone  only  80  per  cent  pure,  would  require  the  pulverizing 
of  one  and  one-fourth  tons  of  the  material.  The  greater  cost  of  quarrying, 
grinding,  hauling  and  applying  the  impure  stone  is  at  once  apparent.  In 


Agricultural  Lime 


17 


those  regions  where  only  the  relatively  impure  limestones  are  available, 
however,  their  use  even  at  the  increased  cost  of  handling  may  be  more 
economical  than  the  use  of  the  higher  grade  material  which  must  be 
shipped  in  at  a considerable  cost  in  freight.  This  is  a matter  which  must 
be  determined  locally.  High-grade  stone  contains  95  per  cent  or  more  of 
calcium  carbonate,  or  its  equivalent  in  combined  calcium  and  magnesium 
carbonates;  medium  grade  contains  85  to  95  per  cent;  low  grade  75  to 
85  per  cent  and  inferior  grade  under  75  per  cent. 


Fig.  7. — Face  of  quarry  in  Burlington  limestone  showing  characteristic  lenses  and 
nodules  of  chert.  This  impurity  should  be  discarded  when  limestone  is  used  for  agricultural 
lime. 

A large  amount  of  limestone  in  Missouri  is  of  high  grade,  and  con- 
sidered from  an  agricultural  viewpoint,  it  constitutes  one  of  the  most 
valuable  resources  of  the  state.  While  most  limestones  contain  the  car- 
bonate largely  in  the  form  of  calcium  carbonate,  which  is  usually  con- 
sidered the  most  desirable  form  for  agricultural  purposes,  many  of  them 
contain  greater  or  less  quantities  of  magnesium  carbonate  also.  The  rocks 


18  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


now  being  ground  for  agricultural  purposes  in  Missouri  are  almost  entirely 
high  calcium  stones  but  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  map  a large  part 
of  the  limestones  of  south  Missouri  are  high  in  magnesium.  So  far  as  soil 
sweetening  is  concerned,  the  magnesium  carbonate  is  not  objectionable1 
and  limestones  may  contain  almost  one-half  the  carbonate  in  the  form  of 
magnesium  carbonate,  as  in  the  case  of  the  true  dolomites,  and  still  be 
ground  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  application  of  very  large  quanti- 
ties (five  tons  or  more)  of  magnesium  carbonate  is  not  considered  desir- 
able on  most  soils,  however,  so  that  the  high  calcium  stones  are  generally 
preferred,  except  on  soils  which  are  naturally  low  in  magnesium. 


Fig.  8. — Map  of  Missouri  showing  the  areas  underlain  by  high  calcium  and  by  mag- 
nesian limestone.  The  white  area  shown  in  the  central  part  of  the  state  contains  some 
-thin  beds  of  limestone  which  occasionally  outcrop  along  the  streams.  (From  State  Geologi- 
cal Map,  published  by  H.  A.  Buehler,  State  Geologist,  Rolla,  Missouri.) 


As  far  as  its  physical  properties  are  concerned,  any  kind  of  limestone 
is  suitable  •for  agricultural  lime.  Fine-grained,  dense  stone  is  as  valuable  as 
the  coarsely  crystalline  stone,  provided  the  purity  is  the  same.  Evidently 
one  of  the  first  points  to  be  considered  in  the  manufacture  of  ground  lime- 


1Chemically  considered,  magnesium  carbonate  is  slightly  more  effective  than  calcium 
carbonate  as  a neutralizing  agent,  one  part  of  magnesium  carbonate  being  equivalent  to  one 
and  nineteen  hundredths  parts  of  calcium  carbonate.  One  hundred  pounds  of  stone  con- 
taining sixty-five  per  cent  calcium  carbonate  and  thirty  per  cent  magnesium  carbonate  with 
five  per  cent  impurity  would  actually  have  a neutralizing  power  equal  to  one  hundred 
pounds  of  pure  calcium  carbonate.  If  it  contained  less  than  5 per  cent  of  impurity  its  neu- 
tralizing power  would  equal  more  than  one  hundred  pounds  of  pure  calcium  carbonate. 


Agricultural  Lime 


19 


stone  is  the  selection  and  opening  of  a suitable  deposit.  It  should  be 
ascertained  that  the  quality  is  reasonably  uniform  thruout  the  deposit  and 
that  a sufficient  quantity  of  stone  is  above  drainage  level,  so  that  the  quarry 
floor  will  not  be  continually  under  water.  Transportation  facilities  and 
other  details  of  similar  importance  should  be  carefully  considered. 

The  various  limestone  formations  occurring  in  this  state  differ  widely 
in  chemical  composition  and  physical  characteristics.  Their  value,  how- 
ever, depends  not  only  upon  their  chemical  composition,  but  upon  their 
thickness,  location,  the  quantity  of  stripping  necessary  and  their  general 
accessibility.  In  the  succeeding  paragraphs  is  given  a general  description 
of  the  major  groups  of  limestones  occurring  in  Missouri,  which  are  suitable 
for  agricultural  purposes.  No  attempt  is  made  to  describe  each  forma- 
tion occurring  in  the  several  groups,  and  only  such  characteristics  are  given 
as  will  assist  in  determining  the  general  utility  of  the  strata  under  con- 
sideration. For  a detailed  report  on  the  limestone  resources  of  Missouri 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Volume  II,  Second  Series,  of  the  publications  of 
the  Missouri  Bureau  of  Geology  and  Mines,  Rolla,  Missouri. 

Figure  8 shows  the  general  distribution  of  the  major  groups  of  lime- 
stone formation  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  lime. 

LIMESTONE  OF  NORTHWEST  MISSOURI 

THE  UPPER  COAE  MEASURES 

The  Upper  Coal  Measures  (Missourian)  of  the  Pennsylvanian  series 
contain  very  large  quantities  of  high  grade  limestone.  This  formation 
underlies  the  greater  part  of  northwest  Missouri,  including  all  the  territory 
west  of  a line  drawn  from  near  the  central  part  of  Cass  County  to  the 
northwest  corner  of  Mercer  County.  The  strata  composing  it  have  a total 
thickness  of  more  than  twelve  hundred  feet,  and  consist  of  interstratified 
limestone  and  shale,  with  occasional  beds  of  sandstone.  The  beds  of  the 
former  vary  in  thickness  from  a few  inches  to  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  with 
occasional  beds  of  greater  thickness.  In  general,  the  thicker  beds  under- 
lie the  shale  and  sandstone  and  are  most  exposed  in  Jackson,  Platte,  Clay, 
Buchanan,  Clinton,  Caldwell,  Daviess,  and  Mercer  counties.  Only  a few 
of  the  more  important  and  thicker  beds  have  been  named.  Of  these,  the 
most  widely  exposed  is  known  as  the  Bethany  Falls  limestone.  It  can  be 
traced  from  Cass  County  north  to  the  Iowa  line.  It  is  rather  pure  and 
well  suited  for  group  limestone.  The  Iola,  Dennis  and  Mound  Valley  lime- 
stones, exposed  in  Jackson  County,  and  numerous  other  limestone  ledges 
outcropping  thruout  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  have  sufficient 
thickness,  as  well  as  the  correct  composition,  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  lime.  More  than  one  hundred  limestone  quarries  are  found 
in  the  region  of  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  in  northwest  Missouri.  The 
greater  proportion  of  these  are  producing  stone  of  such  purity  that  it 
would  be  well  adapted  for  agricultural  lime. 

The  thick  deposits  of  glacial  drift  and  loess  occurring  in  this  region 
often  make  good  stone  inaccessible.  In  general,  it  is  in  the  bluffs  bordering 
the  larger  stream  valleys  and  the  Missouri  river  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  Upper  Coal  Measure  area,  that  the  limestone  ledges  are  exposed. 


20  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


Where  no  bluffs  occur,  the  necessity  of  removing  (stripping)  the  thick 
beds  of  soil  overlying  the  limestone  adds  so  much  to  the  cost  of  quarrying 
usually  to  make  it  impracticable. 

LOWER  COAL  MEASURES 

The  region  occupied  by  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  is  a rather  irregular 
belt  of  varying  width,  extending  from  Jasper  County  in  a northeasterly 
direction  to  the  Iowa  state  line.  It  consists  mainly  of  shale  and  sandstone 
with  comparatively  thin  and  unimportant  interstratified  beds  of  limestone. 
The  latter  are  rarely  exposed  and  with  few  exceptions  are  too  thin  and 
impure  to  warrant  exploitation. 

LIMESTONES  OF  SOUTHWEST,  CENTRAL  AND  NORTHEAST 

MISSOURI 

The  most  extensive  and  by  far  the  most  important  region  of  high 
grade  limestone  in  Missouri  extends  from  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
state  in  a northeasterly  direction  to  the  Missouri  river,  where  it  turns  east- 
ward and  finally  spreads  out  covering  the  eastern  portion  of  the  state  both 
north  and  south  of  the  river.  (See  Fig.  8).  The  several  formations  occur- 
ring in  this  region  consist  mainly  of  limestone  and  are  known  as  the  Mis- 
sissippian  series.  A small  disconnected  area  occurs  along  the  eastern  edge 
of  St.  Genevieve  and  Perry  counties.  The  Mississippian  limestone  is 
mostly  high  calcium  stone  and  is  the  most  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
ground  limestone  to  be  found  in  the  state  . Much  opportunity  exists  for 
developing  local  crushing  plants. 

The  most  important  formation  of  this  series  is  known  as  the  Burling- 
ton limestone.  It  has  a maximum  thickness  of  350  feet  and  is  the  surface 
rock  over  the  greater  part  of  the  area  occupied  by  the  Mississippian  series. 
It  is  identified  by  its  coarsely  crystalline  and  fossiliferous  texture  and 
white  to  buff  color.  Varying  amounts  of  chert  (often  incorrectly  called 
flint,  which  is  black)  occur  thruout  the  formation,  either  in  layers  or  scat- 
tered thru  the  rock,  but  when  quarried  this  is  easily  separated  from  the 
limestone.  This  stone  is  exceptionally  free  from  impurities,  and  the  ledges 
which  are  quarried  contain  from  90  to  99.5  per  cent  of  calcium  carbonate.1 
Excepting  in  portions  of  northeast  Missouri,  this  limestone  is  usually  cov- 
ered with  a slight  amount  of  stripping  and  can  be  quarried  with  compara- 
tive ease. 

The  St.  Louis  limestone  has  its  maximum  development  in  St.  Louis 
County,  but  it  also  occurs  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state  and  in 
St.  Genevieve  County.  The  formation  consists  of  thin  to  heavily  bedded, 
fine  grained,  white  to  gray-colored  limestone.  The  content  of  calcium  car- 
bonate varies  from  70  to  95  per  cent,  which  would  indicate  that  much  of 
this  formation  is  suitable  for  use  in  the  preparation  of  ground  limestone. 

Several  other  formations  of  the  Mississippian  series,  such  as  the  Chou- 
teau and  Louisiana  limestones  consist  dominately  of  calcium  carbonate, 
but  on  account  of  their  limited  distribution,  and  because  they  are  generally 
associated  with  the  Burlington  limestone,  they  are  of  comparatively  little 

1Buehler,  H.  A.  Lime  and  Cement  Resources.  Missouri  Geological  Survey,  Vol.  VI. 
Second  Series,  pp.  233-239. 


Agricultural  Lime 


21 


importance.  For  the  most  part  these  formations  outcrop  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state  and  along  the  Missouri  river  between  Warren  and  Cooper 
counties.  On  account  of  their  varying  thickness  and  irregular  distribution 
their  fitness  for  utilization  must  be  determined  locally. 

Thruout  the  region  .of  occurrence  of  the  Mississippian  limestones,  out- 
crops of  ledge  rock  are  numerous,  and  as  a rule  are  accessible  and  easily 
quarried.  In  fact,  in  the  more  broken  parts  of  this  region  there  is  hardly 
a square  mile  of  territory  that  does  not  have  ledges  of  stone  that  could  be 
utilized  for  manufacturing  agricultural  lime.  Even  the  development  of 
the  many  quarries,  now  used  for  the  production  of  coarse  building  stone, 
could  be  made  to  produce  an  unlimited  supply  of  crushed  limestone.  Large 
quarries  are  located  in  Lincoln,  Greene  and  Jasper  counties,  but  possibili- 
ties for  similar  development  are  found  thruout  the  belt  of  Mississippian 
rock. 

LIMESTONES  OF  SOUTHEAST  MISSOURI 

The  relatively  pure  limestones  of  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the 
state  south  of  St.  Louis  County  can  supply  an  unlimited  amount  of  ma- 
terial for  ground  limestone.  They  belong  to  a wide  range  of  geologic 
ages — Cambrian  to  Pennsylvanian — and  embrace  strata  that  are  especially 
well  suited  for  the  production  of  agricultural  lime.  Their  total  thickness 
is  several  hundred  feet,  and  they  are  therefore  present  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity, wherever  they  occur,  to  warrant  working.  Moreover,  the  prevailing 
hilly  topography  in  the  region  of  these  rocks  provides  extremely  favorable 
conditions  for  the  location  of  quarries. 

These  formations  lie  along  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Ozark  region  ex- 
tending from  the  Missouri  river,  in  the  western  pact  of  St.  Louis  County, 
southward  to  the  lowlands  of  Cape  Girardeau  County.  The  majority  of 
outcrops  occur  in  the  eastern  third  of  the  counties  bordering  the  Missis- 
sippi river.  These  same  formations  also  are  exposed  in  the  eastern  parts 
of  Lincoln,  Pike  and  Ralls  counties  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state, 
and  the  southern  parts  of  St.  Charles  and  Warren  counties. 

In  color  the  limestones  vary  from  gray  to  blue,  and  in  texture  from 
coarse  grained  to  fine  grained.  Probably  the  most  important  formations 
of  this  region  are  the  Kimmswick  and  Plattin  formerly  called  the  Trenton 
limestone.  They  vary  from  coarsely  crystalline  to  fine  grained,  while  oc- 
casional beds  contain  chert  nodules.  The  purity  of  the  formations  and  the 
thickness  of  the  exposed  ledges  fit  them  for  the  manufacture  of  ground 
limestone.  They  are  extensively  quarried  in  St.  Louis,  St.  Genevieve  and 
Cape  Girardeau  counties  for  the  manufacture  of  lime  and  building  stone. 
Fhe  Spergen  limestone,  of  remarkable  purity  occurs  in  St.  Genevieve 
County  and  outcrops  at  various  places  in  the  river  bluffs.  To  the  west  of 
the  river  counties,  in  St.  Francois,  Madison  and  Washington  counties,  ex- 
tensive beds  of  dolmitic  limestone  of  Cambrian  age  occur.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  is  the  Bonne  Terre,  a rather  pure  magnesium  limestone, 
between  500  and  600  feet  thick  in  places.  It  contains  no  chert,  and  is  well 
suited  for  agricultural  lime.  The  chat  of  the  lead  mines  is  largely  from  this 
formation.  In  general,  the  southeastern  part  of  the  state  contains  inex- 
haustible beds  of  high-grade  limestone,  easily  accessible  for  quarrying  and 
well  suited  to  the  manufacture  of  ground  limestone. 


22  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


Location  and  Composition  op  Some  Missouri  Limestones 


County 

City 

Geol. 

Horizon 

Calcium 

Carbon- 

ate 

Magne- 

sium 

Carbon*- 

ate 

Location 

Andrew 

Amazonia 

Upper 

coal  measures 

84.11 

8.74 

Lower  bed  in 
Atwood  quarry 

Bates 

Worland 

Lower 

coal  measures 

89.45 

0.27 

Heavy  bed  opposite 
K.  C.  S.  depot 

Benton 

Warsaw 

Jefferson  City 

47.01 

38.86 

Cotton  Rock 

Boone 

Roeheport 

Burlington 

97.60 

0.75 

Buchanan 

St.  Joe 

Upper 

coal  measure 

95.11 

1.59 

17  foot  ledge, 

St.  Joe,  north  of  city 

Caldwell 

Preeken- 

ridge 

Bethany  Falls 

94.60 

0.31 

Complete  ledge 
Breckenridge  Stone  Co. 

Cape  Gir. 

Cape  Gir. 

Kirr.mswick 

99.52 

0.50 

Cape  Lime  and  Marble  Co. 

Cass 

Greenwood 

Bethany  Falls 

94.69 

0.61 

Ledge  south  of  city 

Christian 

Republic 

Burlington 

99.07 

.05 

Rogers  White  Lime  Co. 

Clinton 

Platts- 

burg 

Upper 

coal  measures 

89.30 

1.30 

Plattsburg  limestone, 
south  of  city. 

Cole 

Jefferson 

City 

Jefferson  City 

41.84 

37.44 

Cooper 

Chouteau 

96.38 

0.76 

Lower  beds  at 
Chouteau  Springs 

Crawford 

Cambro 

Ordovician 

95.23 

1.31 

Marble 

Daviess 

Jameson 

Bethany  Falls 

84.00 

6.93 

A.  B.  George  Quarry 

Douglass 

Ava 

Cambro 

Ordovician 

53.76 

44.69 

One-half  mile  east  of  city 

Franklin 

Port 

Royal 

Kimmswick 

98.50 

0.50 

Greene 

Phenix 

Burlington 

99.06 

0.58 

Phoenix  Stone  & Lime  Co. 

Harrison 

Bethany 

Bethany  Falls 

94.64 

0.35 

Ledge  exposed  just 
west  of  city. 

Howard 

Glasgow 

Lower 

coal  measures 

93.02 

0.50 

From  ledge  in  rail- 
road cut  north  of  city 

Iron 

Jackson 

Independ- 

ence 

Cambro 

Ordovician 

Iola 

89.07 

97.42 

3.75 

0.52 

K.  C.  Portland 
Cement  Co. 

Jasper 

Carthage 

Burlington 

98.57 

0.65 

Carthage  Marble  & 
White  Lime  Co. 

Jefferson 

Byers 

Station 

Kimmswick 

97.70 

0.51 

Union  Sand  and 
Material  Co. 

Lafayette 

Lexington 

Lower 

coal  measures 

86.38 

0.15 

Ledge  below  coal 
one  mile  west  of  city 

Lawrence 

Pierce 

City 

Burlington 

99.28 

0.16 

Pierce  City  Lime.  Co. 

McDonald 

Noel 

Burlington 

94.54 

1.32 

Hughes  Stone  Co. 
quarry  above  lower  bed 

Marion 

Hannibal 

Burlington 

98.87 

0.62 

Hannibal  Lime  Co. 

Mercer 

Princeton 

Bethany  Falls 

93.40 

0.94 

T.  W.  Ballew,  quarry 
lower  ledge. 

Newton 

Grand 

Falls 

Burlington 

98.18 

0.65 

Nodaway 

Skidmore 

Upper 

coal  measures 

71.59 

0.36 

Ledge  one-half  mile 
west  of  city. 

Perr> 

Wittenburg 

Mississippian 

95.36 

2.85 

Four  miles  south  of  city 

Pettis 

Sedalia 

Chouteau 

49.21 

31.57 

Rymer  Bros.  Quarry 

Pike 

Louisiana 

Burlington 

97.80 

0.47 

Marble  Head  Lime  Co. 

Platte 

Weston 

Upper 

coal  measures 

87.86 

4.82 

18  foot  ledge 

Ralls 

Ilasco 

Burlington 

97.99 

0.42 

Agricultural  Lime 


23 


Location  and  Composition  op  Some  Missouri  Limestones 


County 

City 

Geol. 

Horizon 

Calcium 

Carbon- 

ate 

Magne- 

sium 

Carbon- 

ate 

Location 

St.  Clair 

Osceola 

Burlington 

98.59 

0.09 

Hallewell  Cement  Co. 

St.  Francois 

Desloge 

Cambrian 

55.41 

39.54 

Ste. 

Ste.  Genevieve  Lime 

Ste.  Genevieve 

Genevieve 

Spergen  Hill 

98.80 

0.53 

& Quarry  Co. 

Glencoe  Lime  & 

St.  Louis 

St.  Louis 

Kimmswick 

98.96 

0.52 

Cement  Co. 

White  Ledge,  Stolle 

St.  Louis 

St.  Louis 

St.  Louis 

96.09 

0.90 

Stone  Co. 

One-half  mile  north- 

Saline 

Gilliam 

Burlington 

98.67 

0.04 

west  of  city 

Eldorado 

Vernon 

Springs 

Burlington 

94.54 

0.65 

Two  miles  N.  W.  of  city 

Cambro 

Washington 

Ordovician 

53.50 

42.30 

Upper 

Worth 

Denver 

coal  measures 

96.16 

0.49 

Ledge  south  of  mill. 

Cambro 

Wright 

Ordovician 

53.72 

40.97 

From  Table  No.  XVII,  page  233-239  ‘ Lime  and  Cement”  Missouri  Bureau  of  Geology 
and  Mines  Vol.  6,  second  series. 


LIMESTONES  OF  THE  OZARK  REGION 

The  limestones  of  the  Ozark  region  are  almost  entire  magnesian  stones, 
the  amount  of  magnesium  carbonate  varying  from  a few  per  cent  to  as  high 
as  forty  per  cent.  They  are  available  at  almost  any  place  along  the  streams 
or  by  stripping  the  overlying  material  which  varies  in  thickness  according 
to  the  region.  In  most  places  away  from  the  streams  the  covering  is  too 
thick  to  warrant  stripping.  The  varying  composition  of  closely  associated 
beds  makes  it  impossible  to  state  the  value  of  these  stones  for  agricultural 
purposes,  without  an  examination  of  the  individual  ledges. 

A source  of  limestone  which  might  be  utilized  are  the  large  piles  of 
chat  at  the  lead  and  zinc  mines.  Analyses  show  them  to  vary  in  composi- 
tion from  less  than  ten  per  cent  to  more  than  eighty-five  per  cent  carbonate 
so  that  an  analysis  is  always  necessary  to  determine  the  value  of  individual 
chat  piles. 


SUMMARY 

1.  Approximately  two-thirds  of  the  samples  of  Missouri  soils  exam- 
ined have  shown  a need  of  lime.  About  one-fourth  of  these  have  shown 
a lime  need  of  two  tons  or  over  in  the  acre  seven  inches. 

2.  The  satisfactory  production  of  red  clover  or  alfalfa  may  be  taken 
as  an  indication  that  a soil  is  in  no  serious  need  of  lime,  altho  not  all  clover 
or  alfalfa  failures  are  due  to  a lack  of  lime  in  the  soil. 

3.  The  kind  of  lime  to  apply  depends  principally  upon  the  cost.  In 
determining  this  matter  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  the  applied  cost 
per  unit  of  calcium  (CaO)  applied  that  is  the  important  consideration.  As 
a rule  in  Missouri  ground  limestone  is  the  cheapest  form  to  apply. 


24  Missouri  Agriculture  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171 


4.  Limestone  can  be  ground  by  portable  grinders  at  a moderate  cost. 
In  regions  so  far  removed  from  the  railroad  that  the  cost  of  hauling  be- 
comes excessive,  this  means  of  securing  ground  limestone  is  often  eco- 
nomical. 

5.  The  finer  a limestone  is  ground  the  more  active  it  is  in  the  soil, 
but  since  the  cost  increases  with  the  fineness  of  grinding,  a fineness 
that  will  allow  the  material  to  pass  an  eight-mesh  or  a ten-mesh  sieve  may 
be  considered  a good  grade.  The  coarser  the  material  the  larger  the  ap- 
plication required  for  immediate  results. 

6.  The  amount  of  limestone  to  apply  depends  primarily  upon  the 
needs  of  the  soil  and  crop  and  upon  the  quality  and  fineness  of  the  stone, 
but  the  usual  application  is  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  and  one-half  tons 
to  the  acre.  Applications  of  one  to  one  and  a half  tons  of  a good  grade  of 
stone  once  in  four  to  six  years  would  be  considered  reasonable,  on  soils 
showing  enough  acidity  to  affect  seriously  the  growth  of  clover. 

7.  Lime  is  best  applied  with  a lime  spreader  on  land  plowed  for  a 
crop,  allowing  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  to  work  it  thoroly  into  the 
surface  four  or  five  inches.  It  may  be  plowed  under  if  it  is  disked  into  the 
surface  soil  before  plowing. 

8.  Missouri  has  much  limestone  suitable  for  agricultural  purposes. 
The  most  extensive  region  of  high-grade,  high  calcium  stone  extends  from 
southwest  Missouri  in  a northeasterly  direction  to  the  Missouri  river, 
spreading  out  and  covering  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  both  north  and 
south.  The  Ozark  limestones  contain  much  magnesium  and  while  thes 
are  not  usually  considered  quite  so  desirable  as  the  high  calcium  stones 
they  are  very  satisfactory  for  agricultural  purposes. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  172 


WORK  AND  PROGRESS 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

For  the  year  July  1,  1918,  to  June  30,  1919 


Average  results  of  25  years’  cropping  on  Missouri  experiment  station  field.  From 
left  to  right  the  treatments  are:  corn  continuously,  no  treatment;  corn,  oats,  wheat, 

clover  rotation,  no  treatment;  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  rotation,  manure. 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
JUNE,  1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF. AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
SAM  SPARROW,  Chairman,  C.  B.  ROLLINS, 

Kansas  City  Columbia 

JOHN  H.  BRADLEY, 

Kennett 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D..  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF* 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 
C.  R Moulton,  Ph.  D.,  Professor 
L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D.,  Assistant  Professor 
T.  H.  Hopper,  M.  S.,  Assistant 
W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M.,  Assistant 
E.  R.  Vanatta,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant 

AGRICULTURAL  engineering 
E.  w.  Lehmann,  E.  E-,  B.  S.  in  A.  E-, 
Professor 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A.,  Professor 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S.,  Professor 
L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  A..  Professor 

J.  H.  Longwell,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant 

BOTANY 

W.  E.  Maneval,  Ph.  D.,  Professor 
DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 
'A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  A.,  Professor 
W.  W.  SwETT,  A.  M.,  Assistant  Professor 
Percy  Werner,  Jr.,  A.  M.,  Assistant 

ENTOMOLOGY 

Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D.,  Professor 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor 

FARM  CROPS 

W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D.,  Professor 
C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M.,  Assistant  Professor 
E.  M.  McDonald,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M.,  Assistant 

FARM  MANAGEMENT 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M.,  Professor 
R.  M.  Green,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant  Professor 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E.,  Professor 
*As  of  June,  1919. 


HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A.,  Professor 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Ph.  D.,  Assistant  Professor 
H.  F.  Major,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant  Professor 
J.  T.  Rosa  Jr,,  M.  S.  A..  Assistant 
H.  G.  SwartwouT,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant 

poultry  husbandry 

H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S.  A.,  Professor 

G.  W.  Hervey,  M.  S.,  Assistant 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A.,  Professor 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M.,  Assistant  Professor 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Professor 
F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M.,  Assistant  Professor 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.V.S.,  M.D.,  Professor 
L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M.,  Assistant  Professor 
A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M.,  Assistant 

H.  G.  Newman,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D.,  Professor 
OTHER  OFFICERS 

E.  H.  Hughes,  A.  M.,  Assistant  to  Director 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Ai^ricu'tural  Editor 
H.  H KrusekopF,  A.  M . Soil  Survey 
Wm  DeYoung,  B S.  A.,  Assistant.  Soil 
S' rvey 

O.  S.  CrislEr,  D.  V.  M.,  Superintendent, 
Serum  Plant 

E.  E.  Brown,  Business  Manager 
J.  G.  Babb,  M.  A.,  Secretary 
R.  B.  Price,  B.  S.,  Treasurer 
George  Reeder,  Director.  Weather  Bureau 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 
Robert  Scurlock,  Accountant 
J.  C.  McLachlan,  Herdsman,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry 

H.  A.  Ball,  Herdsman,  Dairy  Husbandry 


To  His  Excellency, 

Honorable  Frederick  D.  Gardner, 

Governor  of  Missouri. 

Sir: 

I submit  herewith  a report  of  the  progress  of  the  more  important  activities 
of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the 
University  of  Missouri,  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1919. 

This  report  is  submitted  to  you  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
Federal  Law  which  require  an  annual  report  to  the  Governor  of  the  State,  in- 
cluding a statement  of  receipts  and  expenditures  of  Federal  funds. 

The  present  report  includes  a very  brief  and  concise  statement  of  the  sig- 
nificant work  of  the  Station,  particularly  the  investigations  in  progress,  the  pub- 
lications issued,  changes  in  the  Station  staff  and  the  general  condition  of  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

The  Director  of  the  Station  has  during  the  past  year,  served  as  Chairman 
of  the  Missouri  Council  of  Defense  and  as  Federal  Food  Administrator  for 
Missouri.  The  duties  of  these  positions  have  to  a considerable  extent,  prevented 
the  Director  from  giving  his  undivided  attention  to  the  affairs  of  the  Experiment 
Station,  but  the  work  has  been  successfully  and  efficiently  administered  by  my 
colleagues  and  particularly  by  Acting  Director,  M.  F.  Miller. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

F.  B.  Mumeord, 


Director. 


The  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

F.  B.  Mumford,  Director 

The  soundness  of  the  policies  followed  in  the  development  of  the  work  of 
the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  have  been  demonstrated  by  the  war  emer- 
gency thru  which  the  nation  has  recently  passed.  The  increased  production  cam- 
paigns were  based  entirely  upon  demonstrated  methods  which  had  been  deter- 
mined thru  the  investigations  of  the  Experiment  Station.  No  further  experi- 
ment was  necessary.  The  facts  had  been  determined  and  the  methods  essential 
to  maximum  production  were  quickly  and  successfully  applied. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true,  however,  that  the  important  fundamental  investiga- 
tions of  the  Experiment  Station  suffered  as  a result  of  the  disturbance  caused 
to  all  established  institutions  by  war  conditions.  A number  of  investigators 
left  the  service  of  the  Experiment  Station  temporarily  to  engage  in  military  or 
other  war  activities.  The  investigators  remaining  were  all  actively  engaged  in 
patriotic  service  of  some  kind.  All  of  this  resulted  in  decreasing  the  well-or- 
ganized efficiency  of  the  Experiment  Station. 

The  continually  increasing  prices  of  all  commodities  essential  to  good  work 
has  made  it  increasingly  difficult  to  meet  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  Experi- 
ment Station  with  the  funds  which  have  been  available.  A larger  income  is 
essential  if  the  Station  is  to  continue  to  maintain  its  high  standards  of  work. 

The  word  research  has  been  used  in  a vague  and  indefinite  sense.  It  is 
difficult  to  define  the  term  so  that  it  may  mean  a definite  type  of  knowled- 
We  cannot  limit  research  to  investigation  in  natural  science,  nor.  indeed  can  we 
properly  exclude  from  the  classification  investigations  which  are  not  properly 
classified  as  fundamental  research.  Research  may  be  good  or  bad.  It  may  be 
mediocre  or  it  may  ascend  to  the  highest  plane  of  intellectual  achievement.  It 
is  as  varied  as  human  knowledge.  It  cannot  well  be  standardized.  Unfor- 
tunately, research  does  not  lend  itself  to  quantity  production. 

It  is  in  my  judgment  exceedingly  unwise  to  stamp  with  our  approval  only 
those  investigative  achievements  of  an  important  fundamental  character  which 
have  had  a profound  influence  upon  the  development  of  human  knowledge  and 
human  affairs  and  at  the  same  time  mark  for  disapproval  those  more  modest 
investigations  which  may  not  have  great  fundamental  significance,  but  which 
do  at  the  same  time  extend  the  limits  and  broaden  the  field  of  intellectual 
enterprise  and  incidentally  contribute  to  the  solution  of  fundamental  problems. 
After  all  it  must  be  clearly  recognized  that  if  we  are  to  depend  alone  upon  the 
exceptional  genius  for  the  extension  of  our  knowledge,  we  can  hope  for  only 
a limited  development.  The  vast  majority  of  intellectual  workers  do  not  belong 
in  the  class  with  Galileo,  Newton,  Darwin  or  Kelvin.  The  advancement  of  hu- 
man knowledge  must  after  all  depend  upon  the  faithful,  accurate  and  industrious 
labors  of  the  man  of  average  ability.  It  is  this  type  of  investigator  that  needs 
encouragement  and  must  be  surrounded  with  favorable  conditions  if  we  are  to 
secure  the  greatest  output  of  new  knowledge. 

The  distinction  between  pure  and  applied  science  is  much  overworked. 
There  is  no  essential  fundamental  distinction  between  these  two  types  of  re- 
search. As  Dr.  J.  R.  Angell  has  said,  any  difference  that  may  exist  is  chiefly 
one  of  motivation.  Investigations  in  applied  science  are  purposeful.  They 
have  a definite  object  and  that  is  to  solve  problems  thru  scientific  investigation. 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  5 


The  scientific  method  applied  to  the  solution  of  such  problems  may  oftentimes 
yield  results  of  a most  important  and  fundamental  character.  Research  in  pure 
science  is  not  necessarily  undertaken  as  the  result  of  an  immediate  and  pressing 
need.  The  motive  may  or  may  not  have  any  important  application  to  present 
day  problems.  These  distinctions  are  after  all  not  of  great  significance.  The 
two  types  of  research  are  alike  in  that  they  must  be  based  upon  the  same  fun- 
damental principles  of  science  and  must  be  conducted  in  accordance  with  the 
well-recognized  methods  of  science.  Each  requires  the  same  qualities  of  mind 
and  the  same  unvarying  devotion  to  truth. 

It  is  admitted  that  most  institutions  have  failed,  thru  various  causes,  to 
make  real  contributions  to  knowledge  and  such  must  always  be  dependent,  both 
for  their  ideals  and  their  trained  workers,  upon  those  institutions  which  are 
the  centers  of  productive,  intellectual  achievement.  It  may  not  be  wholly  in- 
correct to  designate  such  institutions  as  consumers  rather  than  producers  of 
knowledge.  It  is  very  clear  that  if  an  institution  is  to  have  any  standing  in  the 
intellectual  world  as  a center  of  learning,  it  must  make  real  contributions  to 
knowledge.  It  must  perform  a real  service  in  extending  the  ever-widening 
boundaries  of  truth.  Its  intellectual  activities  must  result  in  productive  learning. 
It  must  create  new  knowledge.  It  can  accomplish  none  of  these  except  thru 
fundamental  and  original  research.  I cannot  conceive  of  an  institution  making 
real  contributions  to  knowledge  that  performs  the  work  of  teaching  only,  even 
tho  it  may  be  highly  efficient  in  the  performance  of  this  function.  The  teacher 
himself  must  be  a productive  scholar.  He  must  be  a student.  He  must  be  an 
investigator  if  he  would  continue  to  grow  individually,  to  contribute  to  the 
development  of  his  subject  and  to  the  standing  and  reputation  of  his  institution. 

What  are  the  conditions  of  research?  Why  do  some  individuals  make  im- 
portant contributions  to  science  while  others  under  similar  conditions  fail  to  do 
so?  Why  are  certain  institutions  recognized  as  centers  of  productive  learning? 
It  is  certain  that  one  condition  is  always  a fundamental  essential  to  successful 
research  and  that  is  adequate  training  in  fundamental  subjects.  It  is  true  that 
training  alone  does  not  insure  productive  research  but  lack  of  training  is  almost 
inhibitory.  This  is  so  clearly  self-evident  that  it  needs  no  discussion. 

But  the  most  general  complaint  among  university  men  who  have  the  necessary 
training  is  that  they  are  so  burdened  with  teaching  and  administrative  duties 
that  they  have  no  time  or  energy  remaining  for  research.  This  complaint  is 
made  so  frequently  by  men  whose  judgment  in  other  matters  is  generally  ac- 
cepted as  sound  that  we  cannot  lightly  ignore  it  in  any  effort  to  improve  condi- 
tions. I have  no  doubt  that  much  investigational  work  of  value  is  really  pre- 
vented in  this  manner.  It  is  certainly  true  that  teaching  large  numbers  of  un- 
derclassmen is  not  conducive  to  the  higher  type  of  fundamental  research.  It 
seems  to  me  that  administrative  officers  must  make  a more  systematic  effort  to 
give  a greater  opportunity  to  men  of  ability.  The  difficulty  which  confronts  the 
administrative  officers  is  to  discover  the  men  of  genius  who  should  be  given 
encouragement  in  their  efforts  to  increase  intellectual  production.  Men  must 
really  do  research  before  they  can  be  definitely  set  apart  for  this  type  of 
achievement.  They  cannot  do  research  if  they  are  too  much  burdened  with 
teaching  and  other  duties  and  thus  men  of  really  great  possibilities  may  never 
have  the  favorable  opportunity  to  develop  their  talents  for  productive  scholar- 
ship. It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  that  it  is  desirable  from  an  administrative 
standpoint  to  expect  every  teacher  to  make  some  contribution  to  knowledge 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


however  small,  in  the  hope  that  such  a policy  may  result  in  a survival  of  the 
fittest  and  a consequent  selection  of  those  competent  to  succeed.  When  such 
men  are  discovered  the . administration  should  not  hesitate  to  give  them  maxi- 
mum salaries  and  every  facility  for  investigation. 

Research  thrives  on  appreciation.  No  institution  can  hope  to  attain  any 
sort  of  standing  in  the  intellectual  world  if  it  fails  properly  to  value  the  achieve- 
ments of  men  of  science.  There  must  exist  a proper  atmosphere  which  in 
itself  is  a constant  invitation  to  supreme  effort.  The  creation  of  such  an  atmos- 
phere can  be  greatly  encouraged  by  the  administrative  officers. 

The  tools  of  research  are  essential.  Apparatus,  equipment,  laboratories 
and  supplies  must  be  readily  available  at  the  proper  time.  It  is  nothing  short 
of  an  intellectual  calamity  for  an  important  investigation  to  be  held  up  for 
lack  of  a piece  of  apparatus  or  a few  dollars  for  ordinary  labor  or  other  as- 
sistance. 

But  more  important  than  any  material  condition  or  mechanical  arrange- 
ment, is  the  spirit  of  research.  There  must  be  in  the  individual  a divine  zeal— 
an  unquenchable  fire  which  cannot  be  put  out  and  which  will  urge  the  individual 
to  a continual  search  for  truth.  With  such  a zeal  the  investigator  may  be  cer- 
tain to  find  ample  opportunity  and  the  institution  will  find  the  means. 

CHANGES  IN  THE  STATION  STAFF 

New  Appointments 

Mrs.  Mary  Cochran  Farris,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 

V.  R.  Gardner,  B.  S.,  M.  S.  A.,  Professor  of  Horticulture 

D.  J.  Griswold,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  A.  M.,  Research  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Henry  D.  Hooker,  B.  A.,  M.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Horticulture 
John  Harwood  Longwell,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Research  Assistant  in  Animal  Hus- 
bandry 

M.  F.  Miller,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  M.  S.  A.,  Professor  of  Soils,  appointed  Acting 
Dean  during  Dean  Mum  ford’s  absence 

C.  R.  Moulton,  B.  S.  in  Ch.  E.,  M.  S.  in  Agr.,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Agricul- 
tural Chemistry 

A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 

Resignations 

H.  O.  Allison,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 
M.  N.  Beeler,  B.  J.,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Agricultural  Editor 

E.  L.  Dakan,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Assistant  in  Poultry  Husbandry 

C.  H.  Eckles,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  M.  Sc.,  D.  Sc.,  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry 
Mrs.  Mary  Cochran  Farris,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 
M.  H.  Fohrman,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Assistant  in  Dairy  Husbandry 

D.  J.  Griswold,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  A.  M.,  Research  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Howard  Hackedorn,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 
Helen  Johann,  A.  B.,  A.  M.,  Research  Assistant  in  Plant  Pathology 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Professor  of  Horticulture 

H.  F.  Libbey,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Assistant  in  Veterinary  Science 

Leroy  S.  Palmer,  B.  S.  in  Ch.  E.,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Dairy  Chemistry 

E.  C.  Pegg,  Assistant  Professor  of  Forestry 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  7 


V.  T.  Payne,  A.  B.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 
L.  G.  Rinkle,  M.S.A.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry 
C.  R.  Thompson,  B.  S.  in  Agr.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
P.  F.  Trowbridge,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 
J.  C.  Whitten,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Horticulture 
C.  C.  Wiggans,  Assistant  Professor  of  Horticulture 


PUBLICATIONS 

Three  series  of  publications  are  issued  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station — bulletins,  research  bulletins,  and  circulars.  Bulletins  consist  largely 
of  definite  reports  on  some  specific  investigation.  The  results  are  so  presented 
as  to  be  readily  understood  by  the  farmer,  and  the  methods  by  which  the  results 
were  accomplished  are  recounted  for  the  benefit  of  any  who  wish  to  adopt 
them  or  profit  by  them.  Research  bulletins  are  essentially  scientific  papers 
presenting  technical  information  for  the  investigator  or  the  man  well  advanced 
in  agricultural  knowledge.  The  circulars  are  popular  reports  of  experiments, 
or  a summarization  of  the  best  information  extant,  relative  to  some  phase  of 
practical  agriculture.  The  Station  has  issued  within  the  year  eight  new  bulle- 
tins, and  three  reprints,  six  new  research  bulletins,  three  new  circulars  and 
four  reprints. 


Bulletins 


114.  Corn  vs.  Oats  for  Work  Mules 
(reprint) 

132.  Control  of  the  San  Jose  Scale 
in  Missouri  (reprint) 

133.  The  Silo  and  Its  Use  (reprint) 

156.  Milk  Production  Costs  and  Milk 
Prices 

157.  Fertilizer  Trials  — Wentzville 
Experiment  Field 

158.  Winter  Rations  for  Dairy  Heif- 
ers 

159.  Profits  from  Milk  Cows  on  Gen- 
eral Cornbelt  Farms 

Research 

29.  The  Tarnished  Plant  Bug  and 
Its  Injury  to  Nursery  Stock 

30.  Composition  of  the  Beef  Animal 
and  Energy  Cost  of  Fattening 

31.  Some  Factors  Influencing 
Growth  and  Size  of  Dairy  Heif- 
ers at  Maturity 


160.  Inspection  of  Commercial  Fer- 
tilizers, 1918 

161.  Combining  Dormant  and  First 
Summer  Spray  in  Apple  Or- 
chards Infested  by  San  Jose 
Scale 

162.  Legumes,  Sudan  Grass  and  Ce- 
real Crops  for  Silage 

163.  Work  and  Progress  of  the  Ag- 
ricultural Experiment  Station-, 
1917-1918 


Bulletins 

32.  Some  Factors  Favoring  or  Op- 
posing Fruitfulness  m Apples 

33.  An  Investigation  in  Transplant- 
ing 

34.  The . Preservation  of  Milk  for 
Chemical  Analysis 


Circulars 


57.  Keeping  Records  of  Dairy  Cows 
(reprint) 

58.  Docking  and  Castrating  Lambs 
(reprint) 

80.  The  Missouri  Poultry  House 
(reprint) 


83.  The  Home  Vegetable  Garden 
(reprint) 

86.  Soil  Inoculation  for  Legumes 

87.  Growing  Tomatoes  for  the 
Canning  Factory 

88.  Raising  Calves  on  Farms  where 
Whole  Milk  is  Sold 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


SYNOPSES  OF  NEW  PUBLICATIONS 

Milk  Production  Costs  and  Milk  Prices,  R.  M.  Green,  D.  C.  Wood  and  A. 
C.  Ragsdale  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  156  (1918),  pp.  3-36,  figs.  1). — A bulletin 
based  on  the  methods  of  producing  and  marketing  milk  by  farmers  in  the  St. 
Louis,  Kansas  City  and  St.  Joseph  areas.  The  cost  figures  obtained  from  101 
representative  milk  producers  are  in  terms  of  quantity  of  feed  and  labor  as 
well  as  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents.  The  application  of  new  prices  to  the 
quantity  figures  will  furnish  information  approximately  correct  for  any  year 
when  similar  methods  are  followed. 

Fertilizer  Trials — Wentzville  Experiment  Field,  M.  F.  Miller  and  F.  L. 
Duley  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  157  (1918,  pp.  3-23,  figs.  5). — The  results  of  ex- 
periments conducted  in  St.  Charles  County  to  determine  the  most  profitable 
system  of  soil  treatment  and  management  for  soil  fairly  typical  of  Putnam 
silt  loam,  are  reported  in  this  bulletin.  The  results  should  apply  to  practi- 
cally all  the  average  prairie  land  of  northeast  Missouri. 

Winter  Rations  for  Dairy  Heifers,  C.  H.  Eckles  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
158  (1918),  pp.  3-54,  figs.  16). — This  publication  gives  data  that  were  taken 
during  experiments  which  cover  six  winters  with  regard  to  rations  for  winter- 
ing growing  heifers.  Observations  and  data  on  seventy-seven  Jerseys, 
Holsteins,  and  Ayrshires  are  included.  Groups  of  dairy  heifers  were  placed 
on  experiment  in  successive  winters  for  periods  of  from  150  to  180  days. 
The  results  are  measured  by  daily  gains  in  live  weight,  and  by  increase  in 
height  at  withers.  The  most  suitable  rations  for  maintaining  a normal 
growth  are  discussed. 

Profits  From  Milk  Cows  on  General  Cornbelt  Farms,  O.  R.  Johnson 
and  R.  M.  Green  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui..  159  (1918),  pp.  3-20,  figs.  5). — A 
study  to  determine  from  farmers’  experience  the  costs  and  certain  related 
factors  pertaining  to  the  milk  business  as  a subsidiary  enterprise  on  farms 
organized  to  do  a general  farming  business.  The  greater  part  of  the  data 
is  from  detailed  records  on  forty-one  farms.  The  data  cover  a total  of 
158  head  of  milk  cows  and  128  head  of  calves.  The  figures  presented  sug- 
gest practices  of  most  important  application  on  the  small  to  medium-size 
family  farm  where  a satisfactory  annual  income  depends  more  upon  the 
practice  of  numerous  small  economies  than  upon  some  one  or  two  heavily 
financed  enterprises. 

Inspection  of  Commercial  Fertilizers,  1918,  F.  B.  Mumford  and  L.  D. 
Haigh  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  160  (1919),  pp.  3-31,  figs.  1). — A report  on 
the  analysis  of  553  official  samples  representing  158  different  brands  of 
commercial  fertilizers  offered  for  sale  in  Missouri.  The  power  of  lime- 
stone and  similar  materials  to  neutralize  soil  acidity  is  expressed  in  per- 
centage of  calcium  carbonate  for  42  samples  tested.  The  brands  and  guar- 
anteed analysis  of  fertilizers  registered  for  sale  in  Missouri  in  1919  are 
listed. 

Combining  Dormant  and  First  Summer  Spray  in  Apple  Orchards  In- 
fested by  San  Jose  Scale,  T.  J.  Talbert  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  161  (1919), 
pp.  3-15,  figs.  1). — ‘Experiments  and  observations  extending  over  a period 
of  four  years,  as  reported  in  this  bulletin,  show  that  the  dormant  or  San 
Jose  scale  spray  consisting  of  commercial  lime-sulphur,  testing  33  degrees 
Baume,  may  be  applied  to  apple  trees  at  a dilution  of  1 to  7 or  1 to  8 after 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  9 


growth  starts  and  until  the  trees  begin  to  bloom,  without  material  injury 
to  leaves  or  flower  buds.  This  late  concentrated  spray  will  take  the  place 
of  the  first  summer  spray.  It  is  effective  in  killing  many  of  the  sap-sucking 
and  leaf-eating  insects. 

Legumes,  Sudan  Grass  and  Cereal  Crops  for  Silage,  C.  H.  Eckles 
(Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  162  (1919),  pp.  3-25,  figs.  l). — A discussion  of  the 
silo  as  a means  of  preserving  forage  crops  other  than  corn,  and  the  pos- 
sibility and  advisability  of  so  using  them.  Numerous  trials  with  legume 
and  cereal  crops  and  Sudan  grass  are  reported.  This  bulletin  does  not 
advocate  the  making  of  silage  from  the  crops  discussed,  but  reports  the 
results  of  experiments  from  which  it  is  possible  to  draw  conclusions  as  to 
the  conditions  necessary  in  order  to  preserve  the  crops  successfully  in  the 
silo. 

Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  (1917- 

1918),  F.  B.  Mumford  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  163  (1919),  pp.  3-78,  figs. 
21). — This  bulletin  is  the  annual  report  of  the  Director  and  covers  briefly 
the  work  of  the  Experiment  Station,  its  publications  and  a financial  state- 
ment for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1918. 

The  Tarnished  Plant-bug  and  Its  Injury  to  Nursery  Stock,  L.  Hase- 
man  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  29  (1918),  pp.  3-20,  figs.  9).— The  tar- 
nished plant-bug  is  described  as  causing  the  injury  to  nursery  stock  com- 
monly known  as  “stop-back”  or  “bush-head.”  A history  and  a life  history 
of  the  pest  are  included.  The  injury  to  nursery  stock  is  described  and 
remedial  measures  suggested. 

Composition  of  the  Beef  Animal  and  Energy  Cost  of  Fattening,  P.  F. 

Trowbridge,  C.  R.  Moulton  and  L.  D.  Haigh  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui. 
30  (1918),  pp.  3-106,  figs.  39). — This  bulletin  is  a continuation  of  the  series 
reporting  the  “Use  of  Food”  experiment  begun  in  1907  to  determine  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  gain  made  by  3-year-old  steers  in  the  process 
of  being  fitted  for  market;  and  to  determine  what  changes  take  place  in  the 
form  of  the  animal  in  the  fattening  process. 

Some  Factors  Influencing  the  Growth  of  Dairy  Heifers,  C.  H.  Eckles 
and  W.  W.  Swett  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  31  (1918),  pp.  3-36,  figs.  16). 
— -This  bulletin  presents  in  a more  or  less  complete  form  certain  data  con- 
cerning the  factors  which  influence  the  growth  of  dairy  heifers.  The  data 
were  taken  on  animals  in  the  dairy  herd  of  the  University  of  Missouri 
over  a period  of  twelve  years.  Size  of  calf  at  birth,  breed,  liberality  of  the 
ration,  gestation,  lactation,  combination  of  early  calving  and  light  rations, 
and  calcium  in  the  ration,  are  all  discussed  in  determining  the  factors  that 
influence  growth. 

Some  Factors  Favoring  or  Opposing  Fruitfulness  in  Apples,  C.  C. 

Wiggans  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  32  (1918),  pp.  3-60,  figs.  7). — -This 
investigation  deals  with  the  variation  of  fruitfulness  of  the  apple  tree  from 
year  to  year.  The  author  observes  that  certain  varieties  tend  to  bear 
crops  in  alternate  years,  and  some  varieties  alternate  heavy  and  light  crops. 
An  extensive  study  of  the  fruit  spur  as  related  to  this  phenomenon  is  re- 
ported. The  effects  of  girdling,  of  fertilizers,  of  tillage,  and  of  pruning 
are  all  reported  in  this  investigation. 

An  Investigation  in  Transplanting,  J.  C.  Whitten  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta. 
Res.  Bui.  33  (1919),  pp.  3-73,  figs.  5). — This  is  primarily  a report  on  inves- 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


tigations  covering  a period  of  ten  years  to  determine  the  best  season  of  the 
year  in  which  to  transplant  fruit  trees.  Results  from  early  and  late  fall 
plantings  and  early  and  late  spring  plantings  of  the  most  important  varie- 
ties of  fruits  are  compared  to  show  how  their  development  is  influenced 
by  the  season  of  transplanting.  Several  minor  studies  relating  to  trans- 
planting are  grouped  as  a second  part  in  this  report.  They  deal  with  effects 
of  mulching  fall-planted  trees,  the  relation  of  soil  and  atmospheric  tem- 
peratures to  fall  and  spring  planting,  relation  of  wounds  to  the  activity  of 
adjacent  buds,  the  time  to  prune  transplanted  trees,  the  depth  to  plant, 
orientation  of  the  tree,  shaping  the  tree,  importance  of  protecting  young 
tree  roots  from  freezing  and  drying,  and  transplanting  garden  vegetables. 

The  Preservation  of  Milk  for  Chemical  Analysis,  L.  S.  Palmer  (Mis- 
souri Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  34  (1919),  pp.  3-31). — In  this  bulletin  a detailed 
study  of  the  preservation  of  milk  for  chemical  analysis  is  reported,  particu- 
larly with  reference  to  the  preservation  of  the  protein  constituents.  The 
experiments  carried  out  were  designed  to  show  the  influence  of  the  fol- 
lowing factors  upon  the  preservation  of  milk:  the  kind  of  preservative, 
the  temperature  of  preservation,  the  development  of  bacteria  and  enzymes 
in  causing  decomposition,  and  the  minimum  quantity  of  the  best  preserva- 
tive to  use.  The  preservatives  selected  were  formaldehyde,  mercuric  chlo- 
ride, potassium  dichromate,  copper  sulfate,  thymol,  and  toluene. 

Soil  Inoculation  for  Legumes,  W.  A.  Albrecht  (Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Cir- 
cular 86  (1919)  pp.  15,  figs.  6). — This  is  a popular  explanation  of  the  neces- 
sity for  inoculating  legumes  in  Missouri,  and  a detailed  summary  of  the 
best  methods  by  which  it  can  be  done. 

Growing  Tomatoes  for  the  Canning  Factory,  J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.  (Missouri 
Exp.  Sta.  Circular  87  (1919)  pp.  16,  figs.  4). — This  circular  describes  all 
steps  to  be  taken  in  producing  tomatoes  on  a large  scale  such  as  can  be 
practiced  in  Missouri.  The  importance  of  good  plants  of  desirable  varie- 
ties, well  started  in  the  field,  is  emphasized.  Methods  of  culture  and  the 
prevention  of  loss  by  insects  and  diseases  are  discussed. 

Raising  Calves  on  Farms  Where  Whole  Milk  Is  Sold,  W.  W.  Swett 
(Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Circular  88  (1919)  pp.  13,  figs.  1).— This  circular  is  a 
guide  to  the  dairyman  who  seeks  to  maintain  his  dairy  herd  by  retaining 
the  heifer  calves,  rather  than  buying  heifers  on  the  market.  Three  feeding 
plans  are  suggested:  (1)  Feed  the  calf  a minimum  amount  of  milk  and  some 
grain,  using  sufficient  milk  to  give  the  calf  a good  start;  (2)  give  the  calf 
whole  milk  for  a short  time  and  then  change  to  a ration  of  calf-meal  gruel; 
and  (3)  give  the  calf  a good  start  on  milk,  then  withhold  the  milk  at  the 
end  of  two  months  and  put  the  calf  on  a hay  and  grain  ration.  The  last 
two  plants  are  recommended. 

• 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  PUBLICATIONS 

The  mailing  list  for  Experiment  Station  publications  is  divided  into 
seven  classifications  which  total  14,180  names.  The  classes  are:  Commer- 
cial fertilizers,  dairy  husbandry,  animal  husbandry,  farm  crops  and  soils, 
horticulture,  poultry,  and  home  economics.  Publications  are  distributed 
according  to  these  lists  as  soon  as  they  are  received  from  the  printer. 
More  than  104,000  copies  of  Station  publications  were  so  disposed  of  dur- 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  11 


ing  the  last  fiscal  year.  About  two-thirds  of  this  number  were  sent  to  per- 
sons whose  names  are  on  the  mailing  list.  The  other  one-third  were 
mailed  in  answer  to  individual  requests. 

The  mailing  list  has  increased  annually  until  larger  editions  of  popular 
bulletins  and  circulars  are  necessary.  In  some  cases,  the  edition  of  the 
publication  has  been  exhausted  long  before  its  period  of  usefulness  has 
passed,  and  a reprint  has  been  ordered.  This  healthy  growth  in  the  mailing 
list  is  an  index  to  the  increasing  number  of  farmers  who  are  studying  the 
farming  business. 

The  Station  sent  many  of  it§  publications  to  hospitals  where  requested, 
many  of  them  going  to  England,  and  some  to  Canada,  France,  and  Austra- 
lia. Requests  from  army  camps  for  bulletins  to  be  placed  in  libraries, 
were  honored.  Many  requests  are  now  being  received  from  high  schools 
operating  under  the  Smith-Hughes  act  for  bulletins  and  circulars  in  quan- 
tity. The  Missouri  State  Board  of  Agriculture  is  supplied  with  copies  of 
bulletins  requested. 

Articles  by  Members  of  the  Staff  Published  in  Scientific  Journals — 10  c & sc 

“The  Availability  of  the  Energy  of  Food  for  Growth,”  by  C.  R.  Moul- 
ton. Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry  31,  pp.  389-394. 

“Cattle  versus  Crops  as  Soil  Depleters,”  by  C.  R.  Moulton.  Corn  Belt 
Farmer  6,  No.  9,  p.  4. 

“Physiological  Specialization  of  Parasitic  Fungi,”  by  George  M.  Reed. 
Brooklyn  Botanic  Garden  Memoirs  Vol.  1,  pp.  348-409,  July  6,  1918. 

“Milk  as  a Galactogogue,”  by  L.  S.  Palmer  and  C.  H.  Eckles.  New 
York  Medical  Journal  cviii,  No.  9,  375,  1918. 

“The  Physicochemical  State  of  the  Proteins  in  Cow’s  Milk,”  by  L.  S. 
Palmer  and  Robert  G.  Scott.  Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  xxxvii,  No. 
2.  271,  1919. 

“A  Study  of  the  Birth  Rate  of  Calves,”  by  C.  H.  Eckles.  Journal  of 
Biological  Science,  Vol.  2,  No.  3,  May  1919. 

PROGRESS  OF  INVESTIGATIONAL  WORK 

It  has  been  customary  for  a number  of  years  to  make  brief  progress 
reports  of  investigations  in  the  Experiment  Station.  Only  the  more  im- 
portant investigations  are  summarized  in  this  report  of  active  work.  Such 
a report  has  value  in  indicating  the  character  of  investigations  and  the  prog- 
ress which  is  being  made  from  year  to  year.  There  has  been  some  dis- 
turbance of  the  Experiment  Station  activities  due  to  the  general  unrest 
after  the  war.  Such  disturbance  has  not  been  serious  and  the  work  accom- 
plished has  on  the  whole  been  satisfactory. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  summaries  presented  herewith 
are  not  complete  records  of  all  the  work  undertaken  by  the  departments 
named.  They  do  represent  the  major  projects  and  are  therefore,  indicative 
of  the  achievements  of  the  Station  staff  during  the  year. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

Use  of  Food  Experiment  (C.  R.  Moulton,  L.  D.  Haigh,  S.  B.  Shirkey). 

'The  work  during  the  year  has  consisted  largely  of  the  preparation  of  the 
data  for  four  research  bulletins  which  are  rapidly  assuming  form. 

Factors  Influencing  Normal  Rate  of  Growth  in  Domestic  Animals 
and  the  Permanency  of  the  Effects  of  Arrested  Development  (F.  B.  Mum- 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


ford,  C.  R.  Moulton,  S.  B.  Shirkey,  W.  S.  Ritchie). — One  Group  III  animal, 
No.  580,  was  fed  out  from  the  1140th  day  to  the  1500th  day  and  another 
Group  III  animal,  No.  586,  was  slaughtered  while  still  on  the  low  ration  at 
about  1500  days. 

The  steer  fed  out  consumed  during  its  life  about  as  much  dry  matter  as 
Group  III  Use-of-Food  steer.  The  low  plane  animal  consumed  one-sixth 
less  dry  matter.  On  this  amount  of  feed  steer  No.  580  attained  a body 
weight  equal  to  a Group  III  Use-of-Food  steer,  i.  e.,  about  1100  pounds, 
while  steer  No.  586  attained  a weight  of  only  about  600  pounds.  Steer  No. 
580  had  gained  940  pounds  during  the  1500  days  of  the  trial  while  steer 
No.  586  had  gained  only  430  pounds.  A Group  III  Use-of-Food  steer  had 
gained  about  800  pounds. 


Steer  No.  586  (Group  III,  retarded  growth)  Fed  to  gain  ten  pounds  a month 

Steer  No.  500  (Group  III,  use  of  food)  Fed  to  gain  one-half  pound  daily 

Steer  No.  512  (Group  II,  use  of  food)  Fed  liberal  ration  from  beginning  of  experiment 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  13 


The  growth  of  steer  No.  580  in  length,  width  and  circumference  was 
about  equal  to  a Group  III  Use-of-Food  steer,  while  steer  No.  586  was 
very  much  behind.  In  height  however,  steer  No.  580  had  gained  but  little 
more  than  steer  No.  586,  and  both  were  far  behind  the  Group  III  Use-of- 
Food  animal. 

Steer  No.  580  made  economical  gains  while  the  gains  of  steer  No.  586 
were  very  expensive..  The  maintenance  costs  of  the  two  animals  were 
strikingly  lower  than  the  average  costs  of  the  Use-of-Food  steers.  The 
low  plane  of  nutrition  is  considered  the  cause  of  the  economy. 

In  composition  of  quality  of  carcass  steer  No.  580  recovered  to  a 
Group  II  Use-of-Food  condition  (or  a Group  I Retarded  Growth). 

Permanence  of  the  stunting  of  the  low  plane  Retai  ded-Growth  steers 


Steer  No.  580  (Group  III,  retarded  growth)  Fattened  at  three  years  of  age 
Steer  No.  501  (Group  I,  use  of  food)  Fed  all  he  would  take  from  beginning  of  experiment 

is  indicated  by  some  of  the  data  but  not  proved  since  the  animal  fed  out 
was  still  gaining  at  a rate  more  rapid  than  that  shown  by  animals  continu- 
ously on  a better  plane  of  nutrition. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

Investigations  to  Determine  the  Draft  of  Various  Farm  Implements 
and  the  Cost  of  Different  Operations  With  Them  (E.  W.  Lehmann). — 
Draft  tests  were  made  on  Avery  Six  Shovel  Cultivator.  This  test  was  made 
on  the  Farm  Crops  experiment  field,  which  is  a variable  sand  and  clay  loam 
soil.  The  crop  under  cultivation  was  soybeans,  and  the  instrument  used 
was  an  Iowa  dynamometer. 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


Test 

Counter-readings 

Foot- 

pounds 

Time 

sec. 

Horse- 

power 

Pounds 

pull 

(approx.) 

Remarks 

start 

stop 

1 

176 

195 

19,000 

14 

2.47 

470 

Clay  loam — up  grade 

2 

195. 

210.4 

15,400 

16 

1.75 

375 

Sandy  loam  “down” 

3 

210.4 

229.5 

19,100 

14 

2.48 

450 

Same  as  No.  1 

4 

229.5 

246.3 

16,800 

16 

1.91 

400 

Up  grade-sandy  loam 

An  Investigation  of  Sanitary  Conditions  on  Farms  and  Experiments  to 
Determine  the  Best  Types  of  Sanitary  Equipment  (E.  W.  Lehmann,  C.  C. 
Taylor). — Data  have  been  taken  from  fifty  farms.  Water  samples  have 
been  collected  from  each  farm  and  both  chemical  and  bacteriological  anal- 
yses have  been  made.  Forty-eight  samples  of  the  water  tested  were  taken 
from  cisterns,  one  from  a spring,  and  another  from  a shallow  well.  Results 
of  the  bacterial  count  show  presence  of  B.  Coli  in  forty-four  of  the  fifty 
samples  tested.  The  chemical  analysis  showed  that  practically  all  the  sam- 
ples of  water  showed  contamination.  Free  ammonia  was  present  in  prac- 
tically all  the  samples.  This  is  considered  an  indication  of  recent  con- 
tamination, especially  of  animal  origin.  The  presence  of  nitrogen  as  ni- 
trates also  indicates  impurities  and  shows  that  oxidation  is  taking  place, 
caused  by  the  presence  of  bacteria.  Practically  all  of  the  samples  would 
be  condemned  from  a sanitary  standpoint  as  a result  of  the  chemical  anal- 
ysis. The  presence  of  B.  Coli  as  shown  by  the  bacterial  analysis  indicates 
a clear  case  of  some  form  of  sewage  contamination.  While  such  water 
may  not  cause  disease,  it  is  yet  possible  that  disease  germs  may  appear 
at  any  time  and  cause  ill  health.  It  is  found  out  of  fifty  homes  surveyed, 
forty  were  occupied  by  owners,  seven  by  renters  and  three  by  hired  men. 
On  the  farms  surveyed,  the  water  was  drawn  in  one  place  by  a pump.  On 
the  farm  where  the  spring  was  a source  of  supply,  water  was  pumped  to 
watering  troughs  for  live  stock,  but  not  into  the  home.  In  five  places  the 
water  was  lifted  by  means  of  a bucket  and  rope,  and  in  two  places  by 
means  of  a pitcher  pump.  On  the  remaining  farms  water  was  obtained  di- 
rectly from  cistern  or  well  by  means  of  chain  pump. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Age  as  a Factor  in  Animal  Breeding  (F.  B.  Mumford,  J.  H.  Longwell). 
— The  most  significant  fact  developed  during  the  year  was  concerning 
Factor  90.  This  gilt  represented  the  ninth  generation  of  swine  bred  at  the 
first  heat  period,  and  farrowed  thirteen  pigs  June  28,  eleven  of  which  are 
still  living.  This  is  the  largest  litter  ever  farrowed  in  this  experiment.  The 
average  weight  for  the  pigs  was  2.31  pounds,  or  0.07  pounds  above  the  aver- 
age weight  for  the  pigs  of  this  experiment. 

Animals  now  on  experiment  and  number  of  pigs  farrowed  and  raised 
are  as  follows: 


Factor 

Generation 

Pigs  Farrowed 

Pigs  Raised 

50 

5th 

6 

6 

60 

6th 

8 

5 

70 

7th 

7 

6 

80 

8th 

11 

2 

90 

9th 

13 

11 

Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  15 

Heavy  and  Light  Grain  Rations  When  Fed  in  Connection  With  Corn 
Silage  and  Clover  Hay  for  Fattening  Steers  (H.  O.  Allison). — Forty  head 
of  two-year-old  steers  were  put  on  feed  January  13,  1919,  and  fed  for  83 
days,  on  rations  containing  silage.  At  the  end  of  83  days,  the  silage  was 
eliminated  and  all  five  lots  of  steers  were  full  fed  on  shelled  corn,  linseed 
oil  cake  and  clover  hay  for  38  days,  the  test  ending  May  14,  1919.  For 
the  first  83  days  of  the  test,  the  cattle  were  fed  the  following  rations: 

Lot  I.  — Shelled  corn  (full  feed) 

Linseed  oil  meal  (1  lb.  to  6 lbs.  of  corn) 

Corn  silage 
Clover  hay 

Lot  II.  — Shelled  corn  (one-half  feed) 

Linseed  oil  meal  (same  quantity  as  fed  Lot  I) 

Corn  silage 
Clover  hay 

Lot  III. — Shelled  corn  (full  feed  after  first  60  days) 

Linseed  oil  meal  (same  quantity  as  fed  Lot  I) 

Corn  silage 
Clover  hay 

Lot  IV. — Linseed  oil  meal  (same  as  Lot  I) 

Corn  silage 
Clover  hay 

Lot  V.  — Linseed  oil  meal  (average  about  5 lbs.  per  day) 

Corn  silage 
Clover  hay 

The  cost  of  gain  on  these  cattle  was  greatly  reduced  during  the  first 
83  days  of  the  feeding  period  by  the  reduction  and  elimination  of  corn, 
other  than  that  contained  in  the  silage.  Gains  in  live  weight  and  the  result- 
ing finish  were  also  diminished.  Whether  the  economy  effected  by  the 
elimination  of  corn  from  the  ration  is  justified  will  depend  upon  the  higher 
price  paid  on  the  market  for  the  additional  weight  and  finish  obtained  by 
the  corn-fed  cattle. 

Oat  Straw  as  Winter  Roughness  for  Farm  Work  Horses  Fed  in  Con- 
junction With  a Grain  Ration  of  2 Parts  Corn,  2 Parts  Oats,  1 Part  Bran 
and  Linseed  Meal  to  Balance  the  Ration  (E.  A.  Trowbridge). — Twelve 
horses  doing  winter  farm  work  were  fed  oat  straw  as  roughness  and  a 
grain  ration  of  2 parts  shelled  corn,  2 parts  oats,  1 part  bran  and  a small 
quantity  of  oil  meal  for  a period  of  70  days,  beginning  January  3,  1919.  The 
horses  used  in  this  test  were  ten  purebred  Percheron  mares,  and  two  grade 
draft  geldings.  Eight  of  the  mares  were  in  foal. 


Average  initial  weight  1488.33  lbs. 

Average  final  weight  1516.66  lbs. 

Average  gain  in  weight  during  test  28.33  lbs. 

Average  daily  grain  mixture  14.75  lbs. 

2 parts  shelled  corn 
2 parts  oats 
1 part  bran 

Linseed  meal  .464  lbs. 

Oat  straw  15.7 

Average  daily  labor  4 hours 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


Horses  owned  by  the  University  of  Missouri  which  worked  an  average  of  4 hours  daily 
on  an  average  daily  ration  of  14.75  lbs.  of  grain  (2  parts  shelled  corn,  2 parts  oats,  1 part 
bran  by  weight),  and  .46  lbs.  linseed  meal  and  15.7  lbs.  oat  straw  during  the  winter  1918- 
1919.  Photograph  taken  at  close  of  experiment. 


Horses  owned  by  the  University  of  Missouri  which  worked  an  average  of  4 hours  daily 
on  an  average  daily  ration  of  14.75  lbs.  of  grain  (2  parts  oats.  2 parts  shelled  corn,  1 part 
bran)  .46  lbs.  linseed  meal,  15.7  lbs.  oat  straw,  during  the  winter  of  1918-1919.  Photograph 
taken  at  close  of  experiment. 


The  above  data  and  the  results  of  former  tests  indicate  clearly  that 
oat  straw  can  be  used  advantageously  as  roughness  for  farm  horses  doing 
farm  work  in  the  winter  months. 

Hominy  Feed  vs.  Corn  for  Fattening  Swine  on  Forage  (L.  A.  Weaver). 

— ‘Economic  conditions  warranted  the  conducting  of  feeding  trials  to  deter- 
mine the  value  and  limitations  of  some  by-products  which  might  be  suc- 
cessfully used  as  substitutes  for  corn  in  swine  feeding.  A direct  compari- 
son was  made  with  hominy  feed  and  corn  with  two  lots  of  ten  hogs  each. 
Both  lots  were  fed  on  bluegrass  pasture. 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  17 


The  ration  for  Lot  A was:  Hominy  feed,  9 parts;  shorts,  2 parts; 

tankage,  1 part. 

The’ ration  for  Lot  B was:  Ground  corn,  9 parts;  shorts,  2 parts;  tank- 
age, 1 part. 

The  experiment  was  begun  June  1 and  was  continued  for  86  days.  The 
average  initial  weight  of  the  hogs  used  was  between  40  and  45  pounds.  The 
average  daily  gain  of  hogs  in  Lot  A was  0.9  pounds.  The  hogs  in  Lot  B 
eating  corn  instead  of  hominy  feed  gained  0.97  pounds  daily.  It  required 
4.77  pounds  of  hominy  feed,  shorts  and  tankage  to  produce  one  pound  of 
gain  (Lot  A)  and  4.58  pounds  of  corn,  shorts  and  tankage  to  produce  one 
pound  of  gain  (Lot  B).  Results  indicate  that  hominy  feed  makes  a satis- 
factory substitute  for  corn,  altho  the  hogs  receiving  hominy  feed  gained  a 
little  less  rapidly  and  it  took  slightly  more  feed  to  produce  a given  amount 
of  gain  than  was  the  case  of  the  hogs  fed  corn. 

Two  lots  of  17  hogs  each,  one  grazing  on  alfalfa  and  the  other  on  rape, 
were  also  fed  a ration  of  hominy  feed,  9 parts;  shorts,  2 parts;  tankage, 
1 part.  It  was  impossible  to  make  a direct  comparison  of  hominy  feed 
with  corn  fed  to  hogs  on  alfalfa  and  rape  pasture  because  there  was  but  one 
lot  of  alfalfa  and  one  lot  of  rape  fed.  The  results  substantiate  the  conclu- 
sions drawn  from  the  comparison  mentioned  above,  to  the  effect  that  homi- 
ny feed  is  a satisfactory  substitute  for  corn. 

Semi-solid  Buttermilk  vs.  Tankage  as  a Protein  Supplement  in  Rations 
for  Fattening  Swine  (L.  A.  Weaver). — The  forty  purebred  pigs  used  in 
this  test  were  farrowed  in  the  fall  of  1918.  They  were  the  offspring  of 
Poland  China  and  Duroc  Jersey  sows  in  the  University  herd.  Two  series 
of  two  lots  each  were  used  in  the  experiment.  There  were  ten  shotes  in 
each  of  four  lots.  The  experiment  began  March  11,  1919,  and  closed  April 
29,  1919,  extending  over  a period  of  49  days.  The  following  rations  were 
fed: 


Lot  I.  — Ground  corn,  9 parts 
Shorts,  2 parts 
Tankage,  1 part 

Lot  II.  — Ground  corn,  9 parts 
Shorts,  2 parts 

Semi-solid  buttermilk,  1.5  parts 

Lot  III. — Ground  barley,  9 parts 
Shorts,  2 parts 
Tankage,  1 part 

Lot  IV. — Ground  barley,  9 parts 
Shorts,  2 parts 

Semi-solid  buttermilk,  1.5  parts 

The  hogs  weighed  about  130  pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the  test.  At 
the  close  of  the  experiment  they  weighed  in  the  neighborhood  of  225 
pounds.  The  average  daily  gain  for  Lot  I was  1.93  pounds;  for  Lot  II, 
1.94  pounds.  The  hogs  in  Lot  I required  409.9  pounds  of  feed  to  make  100 
pounds  of  gain,  while  those  in  Lot  II  required  423.84  pounds  of  feed.  The 
result  showed  little  difference  in  either  rate  or  economy  of  gain.  One 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


pound  of  tankage  had  the  same  feeding  value  as  one  and  one-half  pounds 
of  semi-solid  buttermilk. 

The  relative  value  of  tankage  and  semi-solid  buttermilk  shown  by  the 
results  of  the  second  series,  Lots  III  and  IV,  where  barley  was  used  in- 
stead of  corn,  were  similar  to  those  obtained  from  Lots  I and  II.  The 
average  daily  gain  for  Lot  III  was  1.85  pounds,  and  for  Lot  IV  was  1.87 
pounds.  The  hogs  in  Lot  III  required  426.60  pounds  of  feed  to  produce 
100  pounds  of  gain,  while  those  in  Lot  IV  required  434.14  pounds  of  feed. 
In  this  series  there  was  little  difference  in  either  the  rate  or  economy  of 
gain  caused  by  substituting  one  and  one-half  pounds  semi-solid  butter- 
milk for  one  pound  of  tankage. 

Barley  vs.  Corn  for  Fattening  Swine  (L.  A.  Weaver). — The  animals 
used  for  this  project  were  the  same  as  those  used  on  the  “semi-solid  but- 
termilk vs.  tankage”  project.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  report  on  that  pro- 
ject that  the  four  lots  were  so  arranged  that  opportunity  was  given  to 
compare  two  lots  getting  corn  with  two  lots  getting  barley,  as  well  ^s  to 
compare  semi-solid  buttermilk  with  tankage.  In  this  case’,  instead  of  com- 
paring Lots  I and  II  and  Lots  III  and  IV  with  each  other,  the  comparison 
is  made  between  Lots  I and  III  and  Lots  II  and  IV. 

The  average  daily  gain  for  Lot  I (corn,  shorts  and  tankage)  was  1.93 
pounds  as  compared  with  1:85  for  Lot  III  (barley,  shorts  and  tankage). 
More  feed  was  required  by  the  hogs  fed  barley  for  100  pounds  gain, — 426.60 
pounds  as  compared  with  409.90  pounds. 

Similar  results  were  obtained  with  the  other  series  of  lots.  The  shotes 
in  Lot  II  (corn,  barley  and  semi-solid  buttermilk)  made  an  average  daily 
gain  of  1.94  pounds  while  those  in  Lot  IV  (barley,  shorts  and  semi-solid 
buttermilk)  gained  on  the  average  1.87  pounds  per  day  per  head.  It  re- 
quired 434.14  pounds  of  barley  ration  to  produce  100  pounds  gain  as  com- 
pared with  423.84  pounds  of  corn.  Summarizing  the  results  of  both  series, 
it  is  true  that  while  ground  barley  made  a very  satisfactory  substitute  for 
corn,  that  the  hogs  fed  barley  gained  a little  less  rapidly  and  somewhat 
more  feed  was  required  to  produce  a given  amount  of  gain  when  barley 
was  used  instead  of  corn. 

Fishmeal  vs.  Tankage  as  a Supplement  to  Corn  in  Rations  for  Fatten- 
ing Swine  (L.  A.  Weaver). — The  merits  of  fishmeal  as  a feeding  stuff  for 
pigs  have  become  more  and  more  appreciated  in  European  countries.  Only 
recently  in  the  United  States  has  there  been  any  interest  shown  in  using 
this  as  a feeding  stuff.  The  composition  of  fishmeal  shows  it  to  be  very 
high  in  protein  and  ash.  This  would  make  it  particularly  valuable  as  a 
supplementary  feed  where  corn  or  some  other  carbonaceous  grain  is  used 
in  the  feeding  operation.  Since  the  use  of  tankage  is  increasing  rapidly, 
and  since  the  supply  is  necessarily  limited,  it  is  important  that  other  sup- 
plements be  found  which  can  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Forty  head  of  purebred  Poland  China,  Duroc  Jersey  and  Berkshire 
pigs,  farrowed  in  the  spring  of  1918,  were  divided  into  four  lots  of  ten 
hogs  each  and  were  fed  for  a period  of  49  days,  the  trial  beginning  Sep- 
tember 21  and  closing  November  9.  Rations  and  manner  of  feeding  were 
as  follows: 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  19 


Lot  I.  — Ground  corn  9 parts 

Shorts  2 parts  by  weight 

Tankage  1 part 

Mixed  with  water  just  before  feeding  and  fed  as  a slop  twice  daily 

Lot  II.  — Ground  corn  9 parts 

Shorts  2 parts  by  weight 

Fishmeal  1 part 

Fed  same  as  Lot  I 

Lot  III. — Ground  corn,  shorts,  tankage. 

Each  feed  placed  in  a separate  self-feeder  and  hogs  allowed  to 
select  feeds  as  they  wish 

Lot  IV. — Ground  corn,  shorts,  fishmeal. 

Fed  same  as  Lot  III. 

The  results  obtained  indicate  that  fishmeal  makes  a satisfactory  sub- 
stitute for  tankage,  since  in  all  cases  the  hogs  receiving  fishmeal  gained 
more  rapidly  and  required  less  feed  to  produce  a given  amount  of  gain 
than  when  tankage  was  used.  Hogs  fed  corn  9 parts,  shorts  2 parts,  and 
fishmeal  1 part,  gained  an  average  of  1.76  pounds  a head  daily,  while  those 
getting  corn,  shorts  and  tankage  gained  1.45  pounds  a head  daily.  In  the 
former  case,  4.41  pounds  of  feed  were  required  to  produce  1 pound  of  gain. 
In  the  latter,  it  required  5.17  pounds  of  feed  to  produce  1 pound  of  gain. 
The  fishmeal  used  in  this  test  was  furnished  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

PLANT  DISEASES 

Grain  Smuts  Investigation  and  Control  (W.  E.  Maneval,  Helen  Jo- 
hann).— The  particular  phases  of  the  grain  smut  project  which  the  De- 
partment has  been  investigating  for  a number  of  years  have  now  been 
practically  concluded.  Final  data  are  being  secured  regarding  the  field 
tests  for  the  present  season.  In  these  tests  45  varieties  of  barley,  20  of 
wheat  and  about  150  of  oats  are  being  used. 

A Study  of  Certain  Fusarial  Diseases  of  Plants  (W.  E.  Maneval,  Helen 
Johann). — Isolations  of  fungi  were  made  from  scabby  wheat  received  from 
Missouri,  Iowa  and  Minnesota.  Isolations  were  made  of  corn  received 
from  Missouri.  Forty  different  strains  of  fusaria  have  been  kept  growing 
in  pure  culture.  In  addition,  several  other  organisms  which  may  be  of 
importance  were  isolated,  particularly  Gibberella  saubienettii  and  diplodia. 
These  fungi  were  studied  with  possible  reference  to  cultural  characteris- 
tics, their  relation  to  temperature  and  their  ability  to  cause  disease  in 
wheat  and  corn.  Scabby  wheat  grains  were  treated  by  various  methods  to 
determine  means  of  disinfecting  such  seed.  The  treatments  consisted  of 
the  use  of  formaldehyde,  mercuric  chloride,  copper  sulphate,  calcium  hypo- 
cholrite  and  hot  water.  The  pathogenicity  of  some  of  the  fungi  isolated 
were  tested  in  the  laboratory  and  greenhouse  with  plants  under  sterile 
condition.  The  results  are  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  It  is  possible  -to  kill  a large  percentage  of  the  scab  organisms  in 
infected  wheat  seed  by  means  of  hot  water  treatment. 

2.  Shrivelled  grains  from  scabby  heads  are  not  necessarily  infected. 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


This  condition  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  cutting  off  of  the  food  supply 
during  the  growth  of  the  grain. 

3.  The  optimum  temperature  for  vegetative  growth  of  all  but  one  of 
the  wheat  Organisms  studied  varies  from  25  to  28  degrees  C.  The  optimum 
temperature  for  diplodia  is  between  30  and  35  degrees  C. 

4.  Giberella  saubinettii  will  kill  corn  seedlings  grown  under  sterile 
conditions  in  the  laboratory  at  room  temperature. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

Factors  Influencing  the  Composition  of  Milk. — The  enzymes  of  milk 
and  their  relations  to  abnormal  flavors  (L.  S.  Palmer). — The  experimental 
work  carried  out  during  the  year  has  been  confined  almost  entirely  to  a 
study  of  the  lipase  content  of  normal  milk.  Further  study  has  been  di- 
rected particularly  to  methods  of  determining  the  lipase  content  of  milk. 
It  was  found  that  milk  presents  a number  of  special  problems  in  connec- 
tion with  the  determination  of  lipase  activity  because  of  its  lactose  and 
protein  content  and  the  formation  of  titratable  acidity  from  these  sub- 
stances thru  the  action  of  bacteria  and  enzymes.  It  was  found  also  that 
the  inorganic  compounds  of  milk  are  factors  of  importance  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  acidity  of  milk,  particularly  when  it  is  attempted  to  deter- 
mine the  lipase  activity  of  the  milk  by  the  usual  method  of  titrating  to 
neutrality  in  the  presence  of  antiseptics  and  then  repeating  the  titration 
after  lipase  has  presumably  split  off  fatty  acids  from  the  neutral  milk  fat. 
It  was  found  further  that  when  pancreatic  lipase  is  allowed  to  act  upon 
the  fat  in  milk  the  usual  method  of  titration  of  the  liberated  fatty  acids  in 
the  aequeous  media  with  an  aequeous  solution  of  alkali  gives  only  a par- 
tial measure  of  the  total  fatty  acids  liberated. 

These  results  led  to  an  extensive  search  for  the  proper  antiseptic  to 
use  in  lipase  studies  with  milk  and  also  for  a suitable  method  for  the  deter- 
mination of  lipase  activity  when  encountered  in  cow’s  milk,  by  which  the 
total  liberated  fatty  acids  would  be  determined  and  the  various  factors 
entering  into  the  results,  especially  with  milk,  would  be  controlled.  Be- 
tween 30  and  40  experiments  were  carried  out  in  connection  with  these 
studies.  Particularly  successful  results  were  secured  in  these  investiga- 
tions by  studying  the  action  of  pancreatic  lipase  on  artificial  milk  prepared 
by  emulsifying  butter  fat  into  gum  arabic.  The  emulsion  thus  produced 
gave  on  dilution  with  water  a highly  suitable  “milk,”  which  was  free  from 
the  vitiating  influence  of  lactose,  proteins,  and  inorganic  phosphates. 

Most  interesting  data  were  secured  on  the  action  of  various  antisep- 
tics toward  the  activity  of  pancreatic  lipase  when  using  this  artificial  “milk.” 
Chloroform,  which  has  been  adopted  by  most  investigators  for  lipase 
studies  with  milk,  was  found  to  retard  greatly  the  activity  of  lipase,  as  low 
as  2 per  cent  chloroform  retarding  the  lipase  50  to  60  per  cent.  In  a study 
of  acetone  solutions  of  iodoform  as  antiseptic  it  was  found  that  both  the 
acetone  and  the  iodoform  retarded  lipase  activity  when  fresh  solutions  of 
the  salt  in  the  reagent  were  used,  and  that  solutions  of  iodoform  containing 
very  small  amounts  of  iodine  inhibited  lipase  activity  completely.  For- 
maldehyde was  found  to  be  the  best  antiseptic  to  use  for  lipase  studies, 
concentrations  as  high  as  1:1,000  having  no  retarding  effects  whatever. 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  21 


It  was  found,  in  fact,  that  a concentration  of  formaldehyde  as  high  as  1 
per  cent  has  no  retarding  effect  on  lipase,  while  the  concentrations  of  0.1 
and  0.05  per  cent  actually  had  a slight  accelerating  effect  on  lipase  activity. 

Regarding  a suitable  method  for  determining  the  total  fatty  acids  lib- 
erated from  milk  fat  by  lipase,  it  was  found  that  excellent  results  could  be 
secured  by  adding  4 volumes  of  a mixture  of  acetone  and  ether,  2:1,  and 
titrating  with  an  0.1  N.  alcoholic  solution  of  KOH,  using  phenolphthalein 
as  indicator.  The  former  method  most  generally  used  for  lipase  activity 
in  milk  wherein  the  milk  is  neutralized,  incubated,  titrated  to  neutrality 
and  the  procedure  repeated  until  no  further  increase  in  acidity  is  secured, 
was  abandoned  in  favor  of  allowing  a suitable  sample  of  milk  to  develop 
its  acidity  due  to  lipase  under  normal  conditions,  using  a suitable  antiseptic, 
and  determining  the  acidity  at  intervals,  as  well  as  at  the  beginning  of  in- 
cubation, on  aliquot  portions  of  the  milk.  It  is  believed  that  this  method 
gives  a more  accurate  measure  of  the  actual  lipase  activity. 

The  work  has  not  progressed  to  the  point  where  it  can  be  stated  with 
assurance  whether  or  not  lipase  is  a normal  constituent  of  milk.  Further 
indications  were  secured,  however,  that  the  bitter  milk  which  frequently 
characterizes  the  close  of  the  lactation  period  of  single  cows  is  due  to  the 
action  of  lipase  on  the  milk  fat.  This  phase  of  the  problem  was  not 
studied  extensively  during  the  year. 

The  influence  of  the  condition  at  parturition  on  the  composition  of  milk 
and  butterfat. — Cow  No.  9 calved  July  23,  1918,  in  excellent  flesh  and  with  a 
body  weight  of  750  to  800  pounds.  She  was  kept  on  a high  protein  plane 
of  nutrition  until  September  16.  Following  the  observations  on  this  animal 
made  in  three  previous  years,  which  indicated  that  a poor  condition  at 
parturition  and  low  protein  plane  of  nutrition  depressed  the  fat  and  pro- 
tein content  of  the  milk,  it  was  expected  that  the  combined  good  condition 
and  high  protein  plane  of  nutrition  in  this  year’s  experiment  would  induce  a 
higher  protein  and  fat  content  in  the  milk  following  parturition.  The  anal- 
yses of  milk  composites  taken  at  suitable  intervals  showed  a slightly 
higher  protein  content  in  the  milk,  the  average  being  about  3.5  per  cent 
after  the  normally  higher  level  of  the  milk  following  parturition  had  disap- 
peared, as  compared  with  a protein  percentage  of  about  3.0  to  3.1  for  the 
previous  years.  The  fat  on  the  milk,  however,  averaged  scarcely  3.5  per 
cent,  which  was  no  higher  than  that  following  parturition  in  a poor  condi- 
tion and  on  a low  plane  of  protein. 

The  conclusion  was  drawn  that  it  was  not  advisable  to  continue  the 
project  with  this  animal,  inasmuch  as  the  results  secured  in  the  previous 
three  year’s  work  were  apparently  due  to  the  individuality  of  the  animal,  as 
much  as  to  the  experimental  conditions  to  which  she  was  submitted. 

The  abnormally  low  protein  and  fat  content  of  the  milk  of  this  animal 
is  apparently  independent  of  the  fact  that  she  calved  in  poor  condition  or 
was  kept  on  a low  protein  plane  for  a period  following  parturition.  Our 
data  do  indicate,  however,  that  an  increase  in  the  protein  content  of  the 
ration  may  be  beneficial  in  raising  the  fat  and  protein  content  of  the  milk 
if  the  animal  has  been  on  a low  protein  plane  and  is  giving  milk  with  a 
low  fat  and  protein  content. 

Influence  of  Nutrition  of  Heifers  and  the  Age  of  Breeding  Upon  Their 
Subsequent  Development. — Protein  requirements  for  growth  (A.  C.  Rags- 


22  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


dale,  W.  W.  Swett). — ‘Twelve  animals  were  used  this  year.  After  another 
year’s  work,  it  is  evident  that  animals  of  either  Holstein  or  Jersey  breed 
cannot  make  normal  gain  on  8 per  cent  protein  plane.  On  a 15  per  cent 
protein  plane  we  have  been  successful  in  getting  practically  a normal  gain 
with  a few  of  our  Holsteins  but  we  have  not  been  successful  on  even  a 15 
per  cent  protein  plane  with  Jerseys. 

A plane  of  20  per  cent  protein  or  about  75  per  cent  of  that  prescribed 
by  the  Wolff-Lehman  standard,  was  on  the  average  approximately  ade- 
quate to  promote  normal  gain  in  our  Holstein  heifers.  On  a 25  per  cent 
protein  plane  most  of  the  Holsteins  made  gains  somewhat  above  normal, 
while  the  Jerseys  were  inconsistent  and  on  the  average  made  only  about 
normal  gains.  A 35  per  cent  protein  plane  was  tried  in  a few  cases.  Hol- 
steins on  this  plane  made  gains  greatly  in  excess  of  the  normal,  while  Jer- 
seys ran  only  slightly  above. 

It  would  appear  that  for  some  reason  the  Jerseys  cannot  make  normal 
gains  on  a ration,  which,  figured  on  the  same  basis,  is  adequate  for  Hol- 
steins. It  is  much  more  difficult  to  get  the  Jerseys  adjusted  to  their  ex- 
perimental feed  and  handling  than  it  is  to  start  the  Holsteins.  Whether 
or  not  there  is  a physiological  difference  in  the  requirements  of  the  two 
breeds  is  not  certain.  The  Jerseys  seem  more  delicate  and  seem  more  par- 
ticular about  what  they  eat.  No  explanation  can  yet  be  offered  for  the  dif- 
ference in  results  between  Jerseys  and  Holsteins. 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  effect  of  a change  in  ration  is  much  more  pro- 
nounced on  the  weight  than  on  the  skeletal  measurements.  An  animal  ^vill 
continue  to  grow  in  height  even  on  a very  low  plane  and  when  the  animal 
is  almost  at  a standstill  in  weight. 

It  has  been  observed  in  our  work  that  the  young  animal  does  not  make 
as  good  gains  on  a given  plane  as  an  older  animal.  In  a few  cases  the 
calves  have  been  slightly  below  normal  in  size  when  started  on  experiment. 
This  has  handicapped  them.  Great  care  has  been  taken  recently  to  select 
only  calves  that  are  of  normal  size.  A question  presents  itself  concerning 
the  requirements  of  animals  of  different  ages.  Possibly  a plane  that  is  suit- 
able for  an  animal  twelve  months  of  age  is  not  suitable  for  one  six  months 
of  age.  We  may  need  to  establish  a “sliding  scale”  of  requirements. 

Raising  calves  on  milk  substitutes. — The  results  of  the  experiments  during 
the  year  lead  to  the  following  conclusions: 

Calves  can  be  weaned  at  the  age  of  sixty  to  seventy  days  and  will  con- 
tinue to  make  approximately  normal  gains  when  fed  on  a suitable  grain 
mixture  and  alfalfa  hay. 

Alfalfa  hay  used  to  supplement  the  grain  ration  gave  more  satisfac- 
tory results  than  timothy  hay. 

Blood  meal  has  no  pronounced  nutritional  value  when  fed  on  the  grain 
mixture  to  calves  more  than  two  months  old. 

Ground  corn  4 parts,  wheat  bran  1 part,  and  linseed  meal  1 part,  when 
fed  in  conjunction  with  alfalfa  hay,  make  a satisfactory  grain  mixture  for 
calves  from  two  to  six  months  of  age. 

Raising  calves  by  weaning  at  sixty  days  of  age  and  subsequently  feed- 
ing them  grain  and  alfalfa  hay  is  more  economical  than  feeding  skimmilk, 
grain  and  hay  until  the  animals  are  six  months  old. 

Silage  Investigations  (A.  C.  Ragsdale,  M.  H.  Forhman). — A compari- 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  23 


son  of  the  loss  of  nutrients  in  the  silo  and  in  the  field  was  continued.  The 
weather  during  the  winter  of  1918-1919  was  mild  and  there  was  more  rain- 
fall than  during  the  previous  winter,  and  while  not  exactly  normal,  it  may 
be  said  the  grain  left  in  the  field  was  subject  to  average  conditions.  The 
mice  damaged  somewhat  that  part  of  the  grain  which  remained  in  the  field 
longest. 


Sip  age  Experiment  3,  1918-1919 


Data  on  four  shocks  of  Learning  corn  left  in  the  field 


Pile 

or 

shock 

No. 

Original 

weight 

Percent 

grain 

Weight 
when 
taken  out 

Percent 

shrunk 

Weight  into  Silo 

Corn 

Water 

Total 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

S 

733.5 

12.8 

336.5 

54.87 

352.25 

390.0 

742.25 

6 

698.0 

12.8 

315.0 

54.1 

Put 

in  Silo  4/4/19 

7 

706.5 

12.8 

253.25 

*64.2 

244.0 

305.25 

549.25 

8 

737.0 

12.8 

276.0 

*62.5 

*Some  loss  due  to  mice. 


The  silage  from  shocks  4 and  5 which  were  put  into  the  silo  December 
6,  1918,  were  dried  out  thoroly  and  water  was  added  on  the  basis  of  corn 
1.00  to  water  1.11.  When  taken  out  of  the  silo  May  14,  1919,  some  of  the 
water  settled  to  the  bottom  making  the  lower  part  of  the  silage  wet.  All 
of  this  silage  kept  excellently,  was  bright  in  color,  had  a sharp  acid  taste 
and  was  very  palatable.  Shocks  7 and  8,  which  were  put  into  the  silo 
April  4,  1919,  were  in  good  condition,  except  that  the  mice  had  damaged 
the  corn  somewhat.  Water  was  added  on  the  basis  of  corn  1.00,  water  1.25. 
When  removed  from  the  silo,  May  14,  1919,  silage  was  bright  and  very 
palatable,  moisture  evenly  distributed,  and  all  kept  in  excellent  condition. 

The  corn  from  four  shocks,  Numbers  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  was  put  into  dif- 
ferent silos  October  2,  1918.  Corn  was  in  good  condition,  about  right  for 
the  silo  but  rather  uneven,  some  being  dented  and  some  in  the  dough. 
Silage  from  the  first  silo  was  removed  December  5,  1918,  the  silage  being 
very  good,  altho  a bit  dry.  The  silage  from  the  second  silo  was  removed 
April  3,  1919,  and  was  in  excellent  condition  altho  a little  dry.  It  was  not 
cut  quite  fine  enough. 

Work  on  sweet  clover  was  continued.  A sample  of  sweet  clover 
silage  was  secured  for  examination,  and  was  of  excellent  quality,  very 
palatable,  and  was  readily  consumed  by  cattle. 

More  data  were  secured  and  the  conclusion  reached  that  ears  of  corn 
too  soft  for  cribbing  can  be  stored  and  preserved  in  the  silo.  Some  late 
corn  which  was  retarded  in  growth  by  dry  weather  in  the  summer  was 
in  the  milk  stage  at  silo  filling  time  and  was  used  for  the  soft  corn  test,  as 
representative  of  the  condition  in  which  so-called  soft  corn  is  usually 


24  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


caught  by  frost.  The  corn  kept  perfectly,  had  an  acid  taste,  shrinkage  was 
small,  and  there  was  no  waste. 

Additional  data  on  silage  from  corn  with  ears  removed  were  secured 
by  the  use  of  a small  experimental  silo.  The  silo  was  filled  October  2, 
1918,  and  when  removed  May  13,  1919,  the  silage  had  kept  perfectly  except 
for  some  white  mold  in  the  bottom  and  at  the  edge  in  a few  places.  This 
may  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  silage  was  not  cut  fine  enough. 

The  tests  on  the  yield  of  special  silage  corn  compared  with  regular 
field  varieties,  begun  in  1917,  were  continued.  The  season  was  unfavorable 
and  as  a result  the  yield  of  all  was  much  decreased.  Weights  were  taken 
by  cutting  and  weighing  certain  rows  running  the  entire  length  of  the 
field.  The  data  on  the  varieties  used  is  given  in  the  following  table: 


Data  on  Varieties  oe  Corn  Used  eor  Sieage — 1918 


Variety 

Yield 
per  • 
Acre 

Percentage 

Percentage 

Percentage 
Grain  only 

Water 

Air-dry 

matter 

Grain 

Stover 

Water 

Air-dry 

matter 

Eureka 

16.680  ft 

67.0 

33.0 

10.7 

89.3 

59.1 

40.9 

Cocke’s  Prolific 

19.320  lb 

66.6 

33.4 

7.9 

92.1 

53.7 

46.3 

Biggs  Seven  Ear 

15.300  lb 

65.4 

34.5 

13.1 

86.9 

47.0 

53.0 

Ceaming 

11.940  lb 

66.7 

33.3 

9.1 

90.0 

42.2 

The  Chemistry  of  Churning  (L.  S.  Palmer). — A limited  amount  of  ex- 
perimental work,  only,  was  done  on  this  project  during  the  past  year. 

Further  observations  were  made  regarding  the  character  of  the  emul- 
sion in  cream  and  butter,  respectively.  It  was  found  that  cream  which 
was  treated  with  17.5  per  cent  of  strong  acetone  solution  of  Sudan  III  and 
Fuchsin,  that  the  fat  globules  readily  took  up  the  red  Sudan  III  stain  and 
the  casein  particles  the  purple  Fuchsin  stain.  Under  the  microscope  the 
cream  thus  stained  showed  the  red  fat  globules  in  an  aqueous  field  contain- 
ing particles  of  purple  colored  protein.  When  this  cream  was  churned 
and  washed  like  normal  cream  the  resulting  butter  gave  the  microscopic 
picture  of  clear  aqueous  drops,  many  of  which  contained  particles  of  pur- 
ple colored  protein,  in  a field  of  red  stained  fat.  The  experiment  was  re- 
peated several  times  with  the  same  result.  It  seems  to  confirm  Fischer’s 
theory  that  milk  and  cream  are  emulsions  of  fat  in  an  aqueous  media  con- 
taining protein,  but  butter  is  the  opposite  type  of  emulsion,  namely  one  of 
protein  solution  in  fat,  the  process  of  churning  being  changing  from  one 
type  of  emulsion  to  the  other. 

ENTOMOLOGY 

An  Investigation  to  Determine  the  Life-History,  Development  and 
Habits  of  the  Corn-Ear  Worm  and  Practical  Methods  of  Controlling  Its 
Ravages  (L.  Haseman,  K.  C.  Sullivan). — During  the  summer  an  experi- 
mental plot  of  corn  was  grown  at  Columbia  to  determine  the  effect  of  dust- 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  25 


ing  and  spraying  on  the  corn-ear  worm.  Three  varieties  of  sweet  corn, 
one  variety  of  pop  corn,  and  five  varieties  of  field  corn  were  used.  These 
varieties  were  used  in  the  test  to  find  out,  if  possible,  the  relative  suscep- 
tibility to  the  attacks  of  the  corn-ear  worm.  Dusts  were  applied  twice, 
and  two  sprays  of  different  strengths  were  applied.  The  year’s  results 
indicate  that  it  is  cheaper  to  dust  than  to  spray,  and  there  was  much  less 
damage  to  the  treated  than  to  the  untreated  corn.  Dusting  and  spraying 
did  not  entirely  keep  the  corn-ear  worm  from  working. 

Injurious  Insect  Pests  of  Melon  and  Related  Crops  (L.  Haseman,  K.  C 
Sullivan). — Watermelons,  muskmelons,  cucumbers,  squashes  and  pumpkins 
were  grown  on  the  Entomological  .experiment  field  and  the  study  of  the 
different  pests  attacking  these  crops  was  made.  The  melon  aphis,  also  the 
striped  cucumber  beetle,  the  squash  stink  bug  and  squash  vine  borer  re- 
ceived special  attention.  Nicotine  sulphate  was  found  to  control  effectively 


Testing  various  sprays  on  vegetables  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


the  melon  aphis.  An  arsenate  spray  made  by  mixing  two  pounds  of  ar- 
senate of  lead  in  fifty  gallons  of  water  gave  very  good  results  where  ap- 
plied early  enough  as  a control  of  the  striped  cucumber  beetle.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  control  the  squash  stink  bug  by  using  contact  sprays, 
including  a miscible  oil,  nicotine  sulphate  and  two  proprietary  chemicals. 
While  none  of  these  sprays  was  entirely  effective,  the  nicotine  sulphate 
gave  the  best  results. 

A Study  of  the  Life  Cycle  of  the  Codling  Moth  and  the  Best  Time  and 
Method  of  Applying  Insecticides  for  Controlling  It  (L.  Haseman,  K.  C. 
Sullivan). — In  May,  1918,  a test  was  made  in  the  Station  orchards  to  deter- 
mine the  pressure  and  the  kind  of  nozzle  to  be  used  in  applying  a spray. 
A standard  Bordeaux  nozzle  and  an  angled  disc  nozzle  were  used  at  the 
varying  pressures  of  200  pounds,  145  pounds  and  85  pounds.  The  spray 
used  was  arsenate  of  lead.  In  the  fall  apples  were  picked  and  the  results 
are  indicated  in  the  following  table: 


26  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


Nozzle  Pressure  Per  Cent  Endworms 

Bordeaux  nozzle  200  lbs.  11.01 

Disc  nozzle  200  lbs.  8.74 

Bordeaux  nozzle  145  lbs.  8.80 

Disc  nozzle  145  lbs.  3.09 

Bordeaux  nozzle  85  lbs.  2.31 

Disc  nozzle  85  lbs.  1.89 


An  Investigation  to  Determine  What  Insects  Are  Injurious  to  Nur- 
sery Stock  in  the  State,  Their  Life  Histories,  Distribution,  Injury  and  Meth- 
ods of  Control  (L.  Haseman,  K.  C.  Sullivan). — San  Jose  scale  is  the  most 
important  nursery  stock  pest  in  Missouri.  The  San  Jose  scale,  however, 
has  been  practically  eradicated  from  Missouri  nurseries.  In  1915-16, 
twenty-four  nurseries  were  found  infested  with  this  scale.  In  1916-17, 
twenty-two  were  found  infested.  In  1917-18,  fifteen  were  found  infested, 
and  in  1918-19,  the  number  was  reduced  to  two.  These  striking  results 
have  been  secured  by:  First,  a careful  and  thoro  inspection  of  every  nur- 

sery of  the  state  during  the  growing  season.  Where  infested  stock  was 
found,  it  was  destroyed.  Second,  closer  cooperation  between  the  nursery- 
man and  those  in  charge  of  the  work  in  the  destruction  of  infested  stock 
and  in  spraying,  fumigating  and  dipping  of  all  stock  where  there  was  the 
least  possibility  of  being  infested.  Third,  by  keeping  the  nursery  premises 
free  from  all  plants  which  might  serve  as  a host  and  harbor  the  San  Jose 
scale. 


FARM  CROPS 

Cultural  Experiments  With  Soybeans  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A.  Helm). 
— Results  from  experiments  to  find  the  relation  between  yield  and  the  rate 
and  method  of  seeding,  were: 

1.  Soybeans  planted  in  rows  spaced  42  inches  and  32  inches  apart,  and 
under  each  spacing  planted  at  the  rate  of  15,  20,  25  and  30  pounds  to  the 
acre,  showed  no  substantial  differences  in  yields  of  either  seed  or  hay. 

2.  When  planted  in  rows  spaced  16  inches  apart  all  rates  of  seeding — 
15,  20,  25  and  30  pounds  to  the  acre — gave  yields  of  hay  and  seed  mate-, 
rially  lower  than  those  from  rows  spaced  32  and  42  inches  apart. 

3.  Seeding  at  the  rates  of  40,  50,  60  and  90  pounds  to  the  acre,  in 
8-inch  (grain  drill)  rows,  gave  yields  of  seed  and  hay  which  were  insignifi- 
cant when  compared  to  yields  from  seeding  at  the  lower  rates  in  32  and 
42-inch  rows. 

These  results  are  of  much  practical  significance,  indicating  as  they  do 
that  a moderate  rate  of  seeding  soybeans,  15  to  20  pounds  to  the  acre  in 
rows  spaced  the  distance  of  ordinary  corn  rows,  is  likely  to  give  maximum 
yields  of  both  seed  and  hay.  Such  a crop  is  easily  planted  and  cultivated 
with  the  ordinary  corn  machinery. 

A Study  of  the  Cultural  Requirements  and  Adaptations  of  Sudan  Grass 

(W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A.  Helm).— At  Columbia  a crop  of  Sudan  grass  sown 
May  1 at  the  rate  of  5 pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  in  rows  spaced  3 feet 
apart,  gave  from  three  cuttings  a total  yield  of  10.2  tons  of  cured  hay 
Another  crop  sown  at  the  same  time,  with  a grain  drill  (the  rows  spaced 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  27 


8 inches  apart),  at  the  rate  of  25  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  yielded  from 
three  cuttings  a total  of  9.3  tons  of  cured  hay.  The  method  of  seeding  this 
crop  produced  a finer  quality  of  hay  (due  to  the  smaller  stems)  altho  a 
lower  yield  than  was  produced  by  the  other  crop  seeded  in  wider  rows. 

A summer  sown  (July  10)  crop  of  Sudan  grass  produced  only  one 
cutting,  that  of  1.6  tons  to  the  acre.  At  Warrensburg  a crop  sown  July 
12  gave  from  its  single  cutting  a yield  of  1.1  tons. 


The  proper  way  to  secure  a good  yield  oi  sc  ybean  hay  from  a catch-crop  sown  after 
wheat.  Above:  Soybeans  sown  on  wheat  stubble  which  had  been  disked.  Below:  Soy- 

beans sown  on  wheat  stubble  which  had  been  given  a light  top-dressing  of  manure,  then 
plowed  and  harrowed.  Under  the  first  treatment  the  acre  yield  was  less  than  one-quarter 
of  a ton  of  bean  hay,  crabgrass  and  weeds.  Under  the  second  treatment  the  acre  yield  was. 
one  and  one-half  tons  of  clean  bean  hay  with  well-developed  seed  pods 


28  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  and  Selections 
of  Cowpeas  to  the  Various  Soil  Types  of  the  State  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A. 
Helm). — Ten  varieties  of  cowpeas  were  tested  at  Columbia  for  seed  and 
hay.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  soybeans  are  rapidly  displacing  cowpeas  in 
Missouri  it  is  interesting  to  make  the  following  comparison  of  the  yields  of 
the  best  six  varieties  of  each  crop: 


Soybeans 

Bushels 

i of  seed 

per 

acre 

Taha  

21.87 

Ebony  

19.69 

Sable  

18.97 

Morse  

18.15 

No.  612  

17.60 

Mikado  

17.49 

Average  

18.96 

Soybeans 

Tons 

of  cured 

hay 

per  acre 

Taha  

4.60 

Chiquita  

3.87 

Buster  Brown  .... 

3.49 

Tarheel  Yellow  ~ 

3.42 

Arlington  

3.40 

Sable  

2.53 

Average  

3.47 

Cowpeas  Bushels  of  seed 


per  acre 


Groit  

New  Era  

Cream  

Early  Ramshorn  .. 
Iron  

13.77 

12.69 

11.77 

9.75 

9.28 

Black  

8.10 

Average  

10.89 

Cowpeas 

Tons  of  cured 
hay  per  acre 

Brabham  

3.86 

Groit  

3.61 

Black  

3.60 

Clay  

3.50 

Whippoorwill  

3.44 

Red  Ripper  

3.23 

Average  

3.54 

It  is  evident  from  these  data  that  soybeans  will  heavily  outyield  cow- 
peas in  seed.  The  hay  yields  of  the  two  crops  were  nearly  the  same,  but 
the  abundant  seed  production  of  soybeans  makes  the  hay  of  this  crop 
much  more  valuable,  pound  for  pound,  than  cowpea  hay. 

A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  of  Wheat  for 
Missouri  Conditions  (W.  C.  Eetheridge,  C.  A.  Helm). — In  1918,  tests  of 
commercial  varieties  of  wheat  were  conducted  only  at  Warrensburg  and 
Maryville.  At  Maryville  the  varieties  were  so  thoroly  winter-killed  that 
no  yields  were  secured.  The  following  data  show  the  yields  of  the  leading 
varieties  at  Warrensburg: 


Variety 

Jones  Red  Wave 
Michigan  Wonder 

Fulcaster  15  

Michigan  Amber 
Harvest  King  


Bushels  of  grain 
per  acre 

24.4 

21.6 

20.9 

19.5 

18.8 


There  was  a difference  of  13.2  bushels  between  the  acre  yields  of  the 
highest  and  the  lowest  yielding  varieties.  This  is  a striking  illustration  of 
the  importance  of  varietal  adaptation. 

A Study  of  the  Important  Varieties  of  Oats  for  Missouri  Conditions 
(W.  C.  Etheridge). — Commercial  varieties  of  oats  were  tested  at  Warrens- 
hurg  and  at  Maryville.  The  Warrensburg  crop  was  poor;  the  Maryville 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  29 


crop  good;  which  is  the  usual  result  with  oats  in  these  sections.  The 
data  on  yields  follow  and  show  that  Texas  Red  and  Burt,  medium  early 
varieties,  were  outstanding  in  their  yields  in  both  sections: 


Variety 

Bushels  of  grain 

i per  acre 

Warrensburg 

Maryville 

Texas  Red  

10.9 

60.8 

Burt  

17.0 

53.2 

Kherson  

7.7 

48.6 

Silvermine  

12.5 

53.1 

White  Shonen  

7.1 

44.5 

American  Banner  

9.6 

36.3 

Swedish  Select  

10.9 

53.4 

A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  of  Spring  Bar- 
ley for  Missouri  Conditions  (W.  C.  Etheridge). — -In  the  favorable  season 
of  1918,  spring  barley  yielded  an  average  of  20.6  bushels  an  acre  at  Colum- 
bia, and  37.0  bushels  at  Maryville.  Of  two  varieties  tested,  Oderbrucker 
was  the  better  in  each  section.  Accumulating  results  are  indicating  that 
spring  barley  is  a fairly  safe  crop  for  north  Missouri;  an  uncertain  crop 
for  central  Missouri,  succeeding  here  only  in  favorable  seasons;  and  gen- 
erally a failure  in  south  Missouri. 

A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  of  Cotton  for 
the  Southeast  Missouri  Lowlands  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A.  Helm). — A suc- 
cessful comparison  of  six  important  types  of  cotton  was  carried  out  in 
1918.  The  late  fall  of  last  season  was  relatively  favorable  to  the  varieties 
which  require  the  longest  possible  growing  season.  As  the  following  data 
will  show,  Cleveland  Big  Boll  and  Mebane  Triumph,  both  late,  big  boiled 
types,  outyielded  the  early,  small  boiled  types,  King  Improved  and  Simp- 
kins Prolific. 

Variety 

Mebane  Triumph  

Simpkins  Prolific  

Cleveland  Big  Boll  .. 

Webber  Long  Staple 

King  Improved  

Boykin  

Cultural  Experiments  With  Cotton  (W.  O .Etheridge).— In  the  spring 
of  1918,  the  fertilizer  tests  with  cotton  were  renewed  in  connection  with  a 
cropping  system  of  corn,  cotton  and  legumes.  In  beginning  the  system, 
fertilizer  was  applied  to  cotton  on  land  which  has  not  in  recent  years  re- 
ceived a stock  of  organic  material  from  the  crops  produced.  All  plant 
material  except  the  stubble  has  been  removed  from  the  land.  The  follow- 
ing yields  resulted: 

Fertilizer  Treatment 
per  acre 

300  lbs.  acid  phosphate 
35  lbs.  potassium  chloride 

No  fertilizer  

300  lbs.  acid  phosphate  .... 

200  lbs.  acid  phosphate  .. 


Pounds  of  lint 
per  acre 

436 

390 

430 

423 


Pounds  of  lint 
per  acre 

395 

324 

374 

297 

319 

338 


30  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


Factors  Influencing  the  Development  of  the  Maize  Plant. — Field  stud- 
ies of  the  plant  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  E.  M.  McDonald). — Studies  of  the  effect 
of  an  associated  growth  of  soybeans  on  the  development  and  yield 
of  corn  were  successfully  continued  thru  a season  of  extreme  drouth. 
As  in  1917,  a material  growth  of  beans,  by  whatever  method  combined  with 
corn,  always  caused  a material  reduction  in  the  yield  of  corn.  Beans  planted 
late,  by  any  method  and  in  any  manner,  in  all  cases  failed  to  make  a mate- 
rial growth  and  had  no  effect  on  the  yield  of  corn. 

Wheat  Breeding  Investigations  Including  the  Improvement  of  Commer- 
cial Varieties  by  the  Pure  Line  Method  of  Breeding  and  Hybridization  and 
Subsequent  Selection  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  L.  J.  Stadler). — In  general  this 
project  is  making  good  progress.  Hybrids  and  pure  line  selections  made 
at  this  Station  are  yearly  compared  with  a large  number  of  other  hybrids 
and  selections  and  commercial  varieties.  By  yearly  elimination  of  the  less 
worthy  kinds,  the  strains  of  outstanding  merit  are  rapidly  being  narrowed 
to  a small  group.  Within  a year  or  two  seed  stocks  of  a few  of  the  best 
strains  will  be  increased  for  a wider  test  in  various  parts  of  the  state.  The 
comparative  value  of  some  of  the  selected  strains  may  be  suggested  by  the 
case  of  Fulcaster  Selection  8-Y,  which  during  the  years  1914  to  1918  in- 
clusive, yielded  a yearly  average  of  6.1  bushels  more  to  the  acre  than  the 
commercial  variety  from  which  it  was  selected. 

A Study  of  Certain  Spring,  Summer  and  Fall  Sown  Crops  for  Forage 

(W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A.  Helm). — In  the  season  of  1918,  summer  sown 
forages  gave  the  following  yields  at  Columbia  and  Warrensburg: 


Crop 

Tons  cured 

hay  per  acre 

Columbia 

Warrensburg 

Sudan  grass  

1.58 

1.12 

Sudan  grass  and  soybeans  

1 22 

2.48 

Amber  sorghum  

2.41 

Amber,  sorghum  and  soybeans  .. 

2.88 

3.30 

Amber  sorghum  and  cowpeas  

2.44 

Kaffir  and  cowpeas  

2.63 

Cowpeas  

....  1.39 

Soybeans  

1.06 

Millet  and  cowpeas  

0.68 

Millet  and  soybeans  

0.81 

The  fall  sown  forages  at  Columbia  yielded  as  follows:  rye,  0.61;  rye 

and  winter  vetch,  0.93;  winter  vetch,  0.75  tons  of  cured  hay  per  acre. 

At  both  Columbia  and  Warrensburg  a mixture  of  oats  and  Canada 
field  peas  was  the  best  of  the  spring  sown  forages,  yielding  in  cured  hay 
1.51  and  1.86  tons. 

Cultural  Experiments  With  Corn  (W.  C.  Etheridge). — The  investiga- 
tion of  cultural  methods  for  corn  was  continued  in  1918  at  the  Maryville 
and  Warrensburg  fields.  The  season  was  extremely  unfavorable;  one  of 
the  most  severe  drouths  in  the  history  of  the  state  caused  a practical  failure 
of  the  corn  crop  in  both  of  the  sections  in  which  the  investigation  was  car- 
ried out.  Yields  produced  under  various  cultural  treatments  follow: 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  31 


Treatment  Yield  per  acre 

Warrensburg  Maryville 

Corn,  surface  planted,  3 shallow  cul- 
tivations   - 0.42  bu.  1.67.  bu. 

Corn,  surface  planted,  4 shallow  cul- 
tivations   0.39  bu.  3.71  bu. 

Corn,  surface,  planted,  3 deep  cul- 
tivations   - 4.97  bu. 

Corn,  list  planted,  3 shallow  cultiva- 
tions   0.43  bu.  

Corn,  surface  planted,  surface  scraped 

5 times  0.57  bu.  8.44  bu. 

Corn,  surface  planted,  no  cultivation....  . 0 


The  most  significant  result  is  that  from  fiequent  scraping  of  the  sur- 
face. This  method  of  cultivation  while  extremely  shallow,  kept  the  crop 
much  cleaner  than  the  deeper,  less  frequent  cultivations,  and  by  its  greater 
efficiency  in  the  removal  of  competitive  plants  (weeds  and  grass)  made  a 
much  more  favorable  condition  for  the  growth  of  corn  in  a season  of  ex- 
treme drouth. 

A Study  of  the  Adaptation  of  the  Important  Varieties  and  Selections 
of  Soybeans  to  the  Various  Soil  Types  of  the  State  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  O. 
A.  Helm). — Thirty-one  varieties  and  selected  strains  of  soybeans  were 
tested  at  Columbia  in  1918.  Some  of  the  leading  varieties  of  this  group 
were  tested  also  at  Kennett,  Maryville,  Warrensburg,  and  Kirksville. 

The  yields  of  the  best  six  varieties  at  Columbia  follow: 


Variety 

Bushels  of  seed 

Variety 

Tons  of  cured 

per  acre 

hay  per  acre 

Taha  

24.97 

Taha  

4.16 

Ebony  

19.69 

Chiquita  

3.87 

Sable  

18.97 

Buster  Brown  

3.49 

Morse  

18.15 

Tarheel  Yellow  .... 

3.42 

No.  612  

17.60 

Arlington  

3.40 

Mikado  

17.49 

Sable  

2.53 

At  Warrensburg,  Mikado,  Morse 

and  Medium  Yellow 

were  the  leading 

varieties  among  six  tested.  Their  respective  yields  were  6.82,  5.46  and  5.19 
bushels  to  the  acre.  Chiquita,  Mikado,  and  Morse  were  the  leading  varie- 
ties for  hay,  yielding  respectively  3.42,  2.55  and  2.46  tons  to  the  acre. 

At  Maryville,  Virginia,  Black  Beauty  and  Wilson  were  the  leading  seed 
varieties.  Their  respective  yields  were  4.46,  4.10,  and  4.10  bushels  to  the 
acre.  No  yields  of  hay  were  secured. 

At  Kirksville,  Wilson,  Morse  and  Medium  Yellow  gave  the  best  yields, 
these  being  in  the  order  of  varieties,  4.02,  2.68,  and  1.34  bushels  to  the  acre. 
As  at  Maryville,  no  yields  of  hay  were  recorded. 

Investigations  With  Winter  Oats,  Including  Variety  Tests  and  Im- 
provement (W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A.  Helm). — Seed  of  a few  plants  which 
survived  the  winter  of  1917-18  were  planted  at  Columbia,  in  the  fall  of 
1918.  No  plants  survived  the  winter.  Since  repeated  trials  of  winter  oats 
at  Columbia  and  in  south  Missouri  have  clearly  demonstrated  their  failure 
in  average  seasons,  and  their  barely  moderate  success  in  unusually  favor- 
able seasons,  this  project  is  now  closed  with  the  conclusion  that  winter 
oats  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  a useful  and  reliable  crop  in  this  state. 


32  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 

General  Plans  of  Farm  Organization  and  Operation  in  Different  Sec- 
tions of  the  State  (R.  M.  Green). — Records  from  southwest  Dade  County 
and  northwest  Saline  County  were  tabulated,  from  the  standpoint  of  what 
farmers  are  able  to  do  with  different  amounts  of  capital.  The  two  regions 
under  study  represent  respectively  a typical  grain  section  of  the  state 
where  wheat  is  a principal  crop,  and  a typical  livestock  feeding  section 
where  corn  is  the  main  crop  but  is  marketed  largely  thru  livestock.  The 
farms  in  the  Saline  county  area  whose  operators  had  in  1914  only  $2,500 
capital  or  less,  have  been  studied.  Fifty-six  such  farms  were  studied. 
Only  three  farmers  out  of  fifty-six  with  this  small  amount  of  capital  were 
owners,  and  these  three  farmers  fell  in  the  lowest  income  group.  Of  the 
fifty-six  farms,  thirty-one  were  making  an  average  labor  income  of  $269.19 
each.  The  other  twenty-five  farms  averaged  $1,083.46  labor  income  each. 
This  difference  in  income  in  favor  of  the  more  successful  farms  was  ac- 
counted for  as  follows: 


Larger  crop  yields  30.0  per  cent 

Larger  size  of  enterprise  29.4  per  cent 

Saving  in  running  expenses  15.5  per  cent 

Better  net  returns  from  livestock  11.4  per  cent 

More  acres  in  farm  11.0  per  cent 

Less  interest  charge  on  investment  2.2  per  cent 

Larger  price  for  crop  sold  0.5  per  cent 


Utilization  of  Labor  on  the  Farm  (R.  M.  Green). — A study  of  the 
fluctuation  in  amount  of  labor  done  month  by  month  on  different  farms  is 
being  made.  On  the  farms  studied  in  1917  actual  fluctuations  varied  from 
8.8  per  cent  on  a 320-acre  farm  to  37.4  per  cent  on  a 240-acre  farm  in  an 
adjoining  county.  The  first  farm  has  been  more  successful  in  fitting  to- 
gether its  livestock  and  crop  enterprises,  and  the  other  necessary  mainte- 
nance and  miscellaneous  farm  work.  This  farm  is  paying  a hired  man 
$80.00  a month,  furnishing  him  a house  and  other  accommodations.  A 
good  cropping  system,  hog  feeding,  production  of  some  purebred  hogs,  and 
a herd  of  purebred  Shorthorn  cattle  are  worked  together  in  a very  suc- 
cessful farm  business.  A small  flock  of  sheep  has  been  recently  added  to 
the  business  without  requiring  the  addition  of  any  extra  help. 

HORTICULTURE 

Peach  Breeding  for  Hardy  Sorts  (V.  R.  Gardner). — Fruit  buds  on 
many  of  the  seedling  trees  that  have  been  produced  in  the  course  of  this 
investigation  survived  the  winter  for  the  first  time  since  they  have  reached 
bearing  age.  The  trees  showed  great  variations  in  hardiness  and  suitable 
records  on  this  point  were  made  in  the  spring  of  1919.  Tho  many  buds 
were  killed  by  freezing,  most  of  the  trees  will  bear  some  fruit  this  year  and 
some  will  bear  a full  crop.  Suitable  records  will  be  made  of  tree  and  fruit 
characters  of  each  plant  as  this  season  advances.  Furthermore,  advantage 
will  be  taken  of  the  opportunity  to  secure  a large  number  of  seeds  for  sec- 
ond-generation trees.  Fortunately,  weather  conditions  have  been  such  that 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  33 


considerable  progress  upon  this  project  is  possible  during  the  calendar  year 
of  1919. 

Fruit  Bud  Development  of  Fruit  Trees  Influenced  by  Treatment  (H.  D. 

Hooker). — Research  bulletin  32,  Some  Factors  Favoring  or  Opposing 
Fruitfulness  in  Apples,  has  been  issued.  The  project  is  being  continued 
along  related  lines  but  from  a new  angle.  Approximately  350  young  apple 
trees  are  being  subjected  to  various  pruning  treatments  and  chemical  anal- 
yses of  the  fruit  spurs  are  being  made  with  a view  to  finding  means  of  af- 
fecting fruit-bud  development  and  observing  the  synchronous  alterations  in 
the  chemical  composition  of  the  fruit  spurs.  A chemical  study  is  being 
made  of  the  spurs  of  mature  trees,  some  bearing  heavily,  others  bearing 
little  or  no  fruit. 

The  Nutrition  of  Fruits  With  Special  Reference  to  Their  Hardiness 

(V.  R.  Gardner,  H.  D.  Hooker). — -A  study  of  the  nutrition  of  the  straw- 
berry and  the  apple  is  being  made,  which  involves  both  experimental  treat- 
ment and  chemical  analyses. 

Spurs  of  young  apple  trees  under  treatment  are  being  analyzed  with 
respect  to  total  nitrogen,  ash,  phosphorus,  potash,  moisture,  reducing  sug- 
ars, non-reducing  sugars,  starch,  polysaccharides,  total  acidity,  and  hydro- 
gen ion  concentration.  The  changes  in  chemical  composition  produced 
by  treatment  are  being  noted  with  a view  to  gaining  a knowledge  of  favor- 
able and  unfavorable  metabolic  conditions. 

The  same  determinations  are  being  made  in  fruit  spurs  of  full-grown 
apple  trees  collected  at  regular  intervals  during  the  year.  The  samples  are 
taken  from  trees  which  represent  a wide  variety  of  metabolic  states.  Other 
trees  are  being  treated  with  fertilizer  to  bring  about  extreme  conditions. 

The  phase  of  this  project  dealing  with  the  fertilization  and  nutrition 
of  the  strawberry  is  being  continued.  Thru  the  use  of  fertilizers,  different 
soil  types,  and  shading  experiments,  an  attempt  is  being  made  to  control 
nutritive  conditions  within  the  plant.  Records  of  general  plant  behavior 
together  with  chemical  analyses  should  serve  (1)  to  throw  light  upon  the 
conditions  within  the  plant  that  are  associated  with  vegetative  activities, 
fruit-bud  formation,  and  fruit  production,  and  (2)  to  suggest  methods  of 
culture  useful  in  securing  the  best  balance  between  vegetative  and  repro- 
ductive activities  from  a production  standpoint. 

A Study  of  the  Factors  Influencing  the  Rest  Period  of  Horticultural 
Plants  (H.  D.  Hooker). — The  study  of  the  factors  influencing  the  rest 
period  of  horticultural  plants  has  been  confined  to  the  peach  during  the 
past  year. 

Chemical  analyses  and  microscopic  examination  of  nodes  with  buds 
that  survived  and  with  buds  that  died  from  the  cold  last  winter  have  been 
made  to  find  the  condition  of  metabolic  equilibrium  that  favors  hardiness. 
Determinations  of  total  nitrogen,  total  ash,  phosphorus,  potash,  moisture, 
reducing  sugars,  non-reducing  sugars,  starch,  polysaccharides,  total  acidity 
and  hydrogen  ion  concentration  were  made.  Microchemical  tests  for 
nitrates,  starch,  protein  and  sugars  have  also  been  made. 

A plot  of  105  peach  trees  on  the  Experiment  Station  grounds  is  being 
given  fourteen  different  kinds  of  pruning  treatment.  At  the  same  time 
chemical  analyses  of  the  new  growth  under  each  of  the  different  treat- 
ments are  being  made  to  determine  the  effect  of  treatment  on  the  physiolo- 


34  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


gical  condition  of  the  trees.  This  will  be  correlated  with  the  ability  of  the 
various  lots  of  trees  to  withstand  the  cold  next  winter. 

Transplanting  Investigations  With  Vegetables  (J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.). — Dur- 
ing the  past  year  this  project  has  been  followed  closely  with  a series  of 
plants  in  field  and  greenhouse.  One  hundred  and  ten  samples  have  been 
gathered  for  chemical  analysis  and  a large  number  for  sectioning  and 
staining.  Considerable  time  has  been  spent  in  determining  hydrogen  ion 
concentration  and  acidity  of  the  sap  of  plants  subjected  to  various  degrees 
of  hardening  off.  It  has  been  found  that  the  condition  of  hardiness  in 
plants  can  be  brought  about  as  effectively  by  withholding  moisture  or  by 
decreasing  supply  of  available  plant  food,  as  by  exposure  to  low  tempera- 
ture. 

Positive  differences  in  behavior  of  plants  in  the  field  have  been  ob- 
served in  point  of  vegetative  growth  and  fruitfulness.  At  the  same  time, 
data  of  practical  value  to  the  truckgrower  are  being  accumulated,  relative 
to  methods  of  transplanting  vegetable  plants. 

Cooperative  Tomato  Investigations  (J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.). — Work  was  be- 
gun in  accordance  with  the  outline  of  the  project.  Series  of  fertilizer  tests 
have  been  placed  with  one  grower  in  Livingston,  three  in  St.  Louis,  three 
in  Greene,  three  in  Newton,  four  in  Howell  counties.  Use  of  straw  mulch 
is  being  tested  cooperatively  by  several  growers  in  St.  Louis  County. 
Several  growers  have  agreed  to  use  seed  selected  from  their  own  fields, 
such  selections  to  be  made  under  direction  and  with  the  assistance  of  the 
vegetable  specialist. 

Four  growers  in  Howell,  two  in  Newton,  and  one  in  Greene  counties 
are  testing  varieties  adapted  for  canning  purposes.  Seed  of  wilt-resistant 
varieties  has  been  distributed  to  thirty-one  growers  in  the  state  who 
suffered  loss  from  this  disease  last  year.  Arrangements  have  been  made 
with  a cannery  at  Neosho  to  pulp  selected  tomato  fruit,  returning  the 
seed  to  the  growers  in  good  condition,  and  paying  the  grower  for  the  pulp. 

Several  fields  have  been  offered  by  growers  for  the  purpose  of  making 
seed  selections  for  local  adjustment,  as  well  as  resistance  to  wilt  and 
blossom-end  rot. 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

The  Relation  of  Plant  Carotinoids  to  Poultry  Production — Relation  to 
growth,  fecundity  and  reproduction  (H.  L.  Kempster,  L.  S.  Palmer). — 
White  Leghorn  chicks  have  been  raised  from  hatching  to  maturity  on  ra- 
tions containing  the  merest  traces,  if  not  entirely  devoid,  of  plant  caroti- 
noids. The  full-grown  hens  have  shown  normal  fecundity,  and  no  abnor- 
malities with  respect  to  fertility  and  hatchability  have  developed.  A second 
generation  of  chicks,  free  from  carotinoids  at  hatching,  has  been  started 
with  every  evidence  of  being  normal  except  for  the  absence  of  yellow  pig- 
mentation of  the  skin.  It  is  concluded  that  the  natural  yellow  pigment 
of  fowls  which  is  derived  from  the  xanthophyll  of  the  food  bears  no  impor- 
tant relation  to  fecundity  and  reproduction,  at  least  for  one  generation. 

Physiological  relation  between  fecundity  and  the  natural  pigmentation 
of  certain  breeds  of  fowls. — Cockerels  fed  on  a carotinoid-free  ration  when 
fed  xanthophyll  immediately  began  to  show  yellow  pigmentation  of  the 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  35 


visible  skin  parts  and  male  birds  with  yellow  shanks,  beaks,  etc.,  when 
given  rations  devoid  of  xanthophyll,  gradually  lost  the  yellow  pigmentation 
until  it  finally  disappeared.  Histological  examination  of  the  skin  shows 
the  xanthophyll  to  be  deposited  in  the  epidermis,  of  the  skin,  beak,  shanks, 
and  ear  lobes,  largely  in  a granular  form  with  little  or  no  fat  associated 
with  it.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  rete  of  the  Malphigi  but  also  along  the 
blood  capillaries  of  the  subcutaneous  tissue.  As  fading  occurs  the  gradual 
movement  of  the  pigment  (xanthophyll)  is  toward  the  surface  where  it  is 
worn  off  by  reason  of  the  normal  replacement  of  the  outer  cells  by  those 
lower  down,  or  is  oxidized  (decolorized)  because  of  the  closer  contact 
with  air. 

The  shanks  of  laying  hens  fade  when  fecundity  occurs.  If  the  fecun- 
dity is  continuous,  the  shanks  of  yellow-skinned  varieties  will  in  time  be 
entirely  free  from  pigment.  Hens  which  had  been  raised  from  hatching  to 
maturity  on  carotinoid-free  rations  and  were  laying  eggs  free  from  caroti- 
noids  were  fed  rations  rich  in  xanthophyll.  It  was  observed  that  no  mat- 
ter how  rich  the  ration  was  in  xanthophyll,  it  was  impossible  for  the  hen 
to  accumulate  yellow  pigment  in  her  shanks.  Even  the  body  fat  failed  to 
take  up  xanthophyll. 

The  results  of  this  experiment  indicate  that  former  explanations  of 
why  the  shanks,  beak,  ear  lobes,  etc.,  of  yellow-skinned  varieties  of  fowls 
fade  when  laying  occurs  are  unsatisfactory.  The  hypothesis  which  has 
been  advanced  and  generally  accepted  in  explanation  of  the  relationship 
which  has  been  observed  between  fecundity  and  pigmentation  is  that  the 
growth  of  the  egg  abstracts  pigments  from  the  body  tissue  with  the  re- 
sulting negative  correlation  between  egg  production  and  the  quantity  of 
yellow  pigment  present  in  the  ear  lobes,  beak,  shanks,  etc.  The  fading 
of  the  above-mentioned  parts  during  fecundity  is  due  to  the  fact  that  fecun- 
dity deflects  the  normal  path  of  excretion  of  the  xanthophyll  from  these 
parts  of  the  egg  yolk.  The  fading  of  the  ear  lobes,  shanks,  etc.,  as  a result 
of  laying  is  an  indication  of  continuous  fecundity  only,  and  not  heavy  egg 
laying,  while  yellow  color  in  these  parts  at  the  end  of  the  laying  season 
indicates  intermittent  fecundity  or  a more  or  less  recent  loss  of  fecundity 
for  a period  of  time  sufficient  for  the  xanthophyll  to  be  restored  to  body. 
Birds  which  stop  laying  soon  accumulate  xanthophyll  in  the  beak,  ear- 
lobes, and  shanks  while  the  fading  is  as  rapid  with  mediocre  as  with  heavy 
laying. 

Influence  of  specific  feeds  and  certain  pigments  on  the  color  of  egg 
yolk  and  body  fat  of  fowls. — Chickens  which  had  been  raised  from  hatching 
to  maturity  on  rations  devoid  of  carotinoids  were  fed  certain  pigments  and 
feeds  and  the  following  observations  were  noted: 

Carotin  and  the  orange  yellow  pigment  of  the  annotto  seed  are  with- 
out influence  on  the  color  of  the  adipose  tissue  and  visible  skin  parts  of 
fowls. 

Sudan  III  colors  the  adipose  tissue  only  of  non-laying  fowls.  It  also 
colors  the  egg  yolk,  but  is  without  effect  on  the  visible  skin  parts  of  non- 
laying or  laying  fowls. 

Xanthophyll,  fed  in  the  form  of  yellow  corn,  has  an  immediate  effect 
on  the  color  of  the  adipose  tissue  and  visible  skin  parts  of  fowls  of  the 
type  of  the  White  Leghorn. 


36  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


The  relative  xanthophyll  content  of  various  chicken  feeds  was  tested 
by  feeding  to  laying  hens  raised  on  carotinoid-free  rations  and  laying  eggs 
with  xanthophyll-free  yolks.  Yellow  corn  and  green  feed  were  found  to 
be  rich  in  xanthophyll  and  showed  highly  colored  yolks  after  a period  of 
three  weeks.  A little  coloration  of  egg  yolks  was  observed  by  feeding 
hemp  seed,  barley,  gluten  feed  and  red  corn.  Wheat,  wheat  bran,  oats,  cot- 
tonseed meal,  rape  seed,  meat  scrap,  and  blood  meal  were  found  to  contain 
negligible  quantities  of  xanthophyll,  as  indicated  by  the  color  of  the  egg 
yolks  which  were  faintly  tinted  with  yellow  after  a period  of  four  weeks. 

Value  of  Sour  Milk,  Beef  Scrap,  Cottonseed  Meal,  Gluten  Meal,  and 
Oil  Meal  in  Rations  for  Egg  Production  (H.  L.  Kempster). — During* 
1918-19,  a study  of  cottonseed  meal  as  compared  with  meat  scrap  was 
made.  Ten  pens  of  White  Leghorn  hens  were  used  in  this  test.  Each 
pen  contained  ten  hens,  which  were  selected  on  the  basis  of  their  trap 
nest  records.  They  were  fed  rations,  the  mash  of  which  contained  either 
meat  scrap  or  cottonseed  meal,  or  neither,  in  varying  amounts..  The 
scratch  feed  was  the  same  for  all  pens.  Meat  scrap,  or  cottonseed  meal, 
was  added  to  a basal  mash  of  2.2  pounds  bran  and  4.4  pounds  shorts. 


Pen 

Protein  Concentrates 

Eggs 

Grain 

Mash 

Lbs.  feed  to 

added  to  basal  mash 

produce  1 doz.  eggs 

1 

Meat  scrap,  3.4  lbs 

1135 

509 

318 

8.7 

2 

Cottonseed  meal,  6.0  lbs 

378 

493 

169 

21. 

3 

Cottonseed  meal,  6.0  lbs. 
Bone  meal,  0.66  lbs 

676 

467 

195 

12. 

4 

595 

343 

254 

12. 

5 

Meat  scrap,  1.13  lbs. 

Cottonseed  meal,  4.02  lbs 

1063 

462 

242 

8.1 

6 

Meat  scrap,  1.13  lbs. 
Cottonseed  meal,  4.02  lbs. 
Bone  meal,  0.66  lbs 

998 

474 

224 

8.37 

7 

Meat  scrap,  1.13  lbs 

1045 

487 

255 

8.55 

8 

Meat  scrap,  2.26  lbs. 
Cottonseed  meal,  2.0  lbs 

1099 

468 

205 

7.5 

9 

Meat  scrap,  2.26  lbs. 
Cottonseed  meal,  2.0  lbs. 
Bone  meal,  0.66  lbs 

1151 

484 

240 

7.5 

10 

Meat  scrap,  2.26  lbs 

1052 

460 

232 

8.01 

It  is  observed  that  the  most  economical  egg  production  came  from 
the  pens  in  which  the  mash  contained  approximately  25  per  cent  meat 
scrap.  The  use  of  cottonseed  meal  as  a supplement  to  meat  scrap  appar- 
ently did  not  materially  increase  egg  production.  In  Pen  2,  where  cotton- 
seed meal  alone  was  fed,  a deleterious  effect  was  observed.  The  egg  pro- 
duction was  22  eggs  per  hen  less  than  in  Pen  4,  where  no  protein  concen- 
trate was  added  to  the  basal  mash.  Results  for  this  experiment  from  No- 
vember, 1918,  to  June  30,  1919,  are  given  below. 

As  in  the  previous  experiment,  the  efficiency  of  the  ration  depends 
upon  including  a protein  concentrate  from  animal  sources.  Where  no  ani- 
mal food  was  used  it  required  from  12.3  to  14.25  pounds  of  grain  to  pro- 
duce a dozen  eggs,  and  when  animal  food  was  fed  the  amount  of  feed 
required  ranged  from  8.25  to  9.05  pounds. 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  37 


Pen 

Protein  Concentrates 

Eggs 

Grain 

Mash 

Lbs.  feed  to 

1 

added  to  basal  mash 

Meat  scrap,  3.3  lbs 

747 

425 

200 

produce  1 doz.  eggs 
10.05 

2 

Meat  scrap,  3.3  lbs 

976 

415 

259 

8.25 

3 

560 

370 

2'96 

14.26 

4 

588 

385 

272 

14.1 

5 

Meat  scrap,  1.13  lbs. 
Cottonseed  meal,  4.02  lbs 

720 

380 

227 

10.27 

6 

No-protein  concentrate  plus 
bone  ash  

594 

375 

241 

12.3 

7 

Meat  scrap,  1.13  lbs 

865 

380 

225 

8.4 

8 

Meat  scrap,  2.27  lbs. 
Cottonseed  meal,  2.0  lbs 

770 

385 

232 

9.3 

9 

Sour  milk  given  as  a drink 

745 

464 

96.7 

9.0 

10 

Meat  scrap,  2.27  lbs 

729 

370 

329 

9.0 

As  in  the  previous  experiment,  the  use  of  cottonseed  meal  did  not 
increase  the  efficiency  of  the  ration.  Sour  milk  appears  to  be  equal  to  meat 
scrap,  altho  in  the  foregoing  figures  the  amount  of  milk  is  not  included. 

SOILS 

Crop  Rotation  and  Fertilizer  Experiments  (M.  F.  Miller,  R.  R.  Hudd- 
son,  F.  L.  Duley). — The  1918  crop  was  the  twenty-ninth  grown  in  this  ex- 
periment. It  was  a good  season  for  wheat,  but  very  hot  and  dry  for  other 
crops.  The  six-year  rotation  plots  were  in  wheat  and  the  records  show 
very  good  results  for  the  various  methods  of  soil  management. 


Treatment  Yield,  bushels 

per  acre 

Six-year  rotation  with  chemicals  to  make  40  bu.  wheat  34.18 

Six-year  rotation  with  half  chemicals  and  half  manure  39.20 

Six-year  rotation  with  manure  and  rock  phosphate  33.48 

Six-year  rotation  with  manure  and  bone  meal  38.50 

Six-year  rotation  with  manure  and  acid  phosphate  38.97 

Six-year  rotation  with  manure  alone  34.30 

Six-year  rotation  with  no  fertility  added  10.80 


38  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 

Plots  22  and  23  which  have  been  in  timothy  for  twenty-nine  years  gave 
striking  testimony  to  the  value  of  manure  on  grass. 

Plot  22,  which  gets  six  tons  manure  annually,  yielded  2240  pounds  good 
quality  hay,  while  plot  23  with  no  fertility  added  yielded  only  490  pounds 
hay,  about  half  weeds. 

Determination  of  the  Relative  Values  of  Different  Forms  of  Phosphorus 
Upon  the  Soil  at  Columbia  (M.  F.  Miller,  R.  R.  Hudelson,  F.  L.  Duley). — 
This  project  was  continued  according  to  plan  and  a crop  of  clover  har- 
vested. Arranged  in  order  of  yield  beginning  with  the  highest,  the  differ- 
ent phosphates  stand  as  follows:  Calcined  phosphate,  acid  phosphate, 

basic  slag,  rock  phosphate,  bone  meal. 

The  Effect  of  Different  Amounts  and  Different  Methods  of  Applying 
Commercial  Fertilizer  on  the  Corn  Crop  (M.  F.  Miller,  R.  R.  Hudelson,  F. 
L.  Duley). — The  records  for  1918,  which  is  the  third  year  of  this  experi- 
ment, bear  out  those  of  the  preceding  year  in  showing  the  best  yield  where 
300  pounds  of  fertilizer  was  drilled  ahead  of  the  planter  with  an  ordinarv 
grain  fertilizer  drill.  Next  in  order  was  the  use  of  50  to  75  pounds  of 
fertilizer  in  the  row  with  the  fertilizer  attachment  on  the  corn  planter. 
This  was  contrary  to  the  preceding  year’s  records.  One  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  in  the  row  was  too  much  and  caused  a reduction  in  the  yield.  Fer- 
tilizer applied  along  the  row  at  the  second  and  third  cultivations  was  only 
fairly  satisfactory  during  this  season. 

The  Effect  of  Cowpea  Land  Handled  in  Various  Ways  on  the  Growth 
of  Wheat  Following  (M.  F.  Miller,  R.  R.  Hudelson,  F.  L.  Duley). — The 
1917  cowpea  crop  made  practically  no  growth  due  to  drouthy  conditions. 
The  1918  wheat  yields  were  as  follows: 


Treatment  Yield,  bushels 

per  acre 

Peas  removed,  land  disked  and  rolled  13.65 

Peas  removed,  land  disked  but  not  rolled  16.68 

Plowed  early,  but  no  peas  sown  11.91 

Peas  plowed  under,  disked  and  rolled  14.08 

Peas  disked  under,  land  rolled  13.86 


The  land  without  cowpeas  shows  a consistently  lower  yield  thruout 
the  experiment. 

The  Production  and  Distribution  of  Bacteria  for  Legumes  (Wm.  A. 

Albrecht). — During  the  year  legume  cultures  were  distributed  to  1,225  dif- 
ferent farmers.  A total  of  7,764  cultures  were  sent  out.  These  were  for 
many  different  legumes,  distributed  as  follows: 


Soybeans  4,474 

Alfalfa  : 1,769 

Sweet  clover  : 658 

Cowpeas  1 454 

Red  clover  269 

Canada  peas  63 

Velvet  bean  51 

Field  pea  5 

Alsike  clover  13 

Navy  bean  6 

Peanut  2 


7,764 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  39 


As  a result  of  this  project,  with  its  distribution  of  information,  the  new 
legumes  are  being  carefully  inoculated  and  better  success  obtained.  Re- 
ports from  inquiries  sent  to  the  farmers  indicate  that  the  cultures  have 
been  highly  successful. 

Experiments  to  Determine  the  Value  of  Bat  Guano  as  a Fertilizer 
(Wm.  A.  Albrecht). — Since  the  south  half  of  the  state  had  numerous 
caves  of  which  many  are  reported  to  contain  bat  guano,  it  was  deemed  ad- 
visable to  test  the  value  of  this  material  as  a fertilizer,  especially  for  its 
value  as  a carrier  of  nitrogen. 

The  state  has  been  surveyed  for  the  caves  and  samples  of  guano  were 
collected  and  analyzed.  Great  variations  in  composition  of  the  material 
were  found,  especially  in  its  nitrogen.  Irregularities  are  due  to  four  factors: 
(1)  Rock  and  extraneous  matter,  (2)  moisture  variations,  (3)  age  or  stage 
of  decomposition,  and  (4)  leaching.  Significant  deposits  were  found  and 
the  owners  interested  in  marketing  them  for  fertilizer. 

Fertilizer  tests  and  decomposition  were  made  on  a good  grade  of 
guano.  In  comparison  with  dried  blood  and  tankage  its  ammonia  produc- 
tion in  soil  was  the  equal  of  these  two  common  fertilizer  ingredients.  In 
producing  nitrates  it  was  not  the  equal  of  blood  but  superior  to  tankage. 
In  pot  culture  of  oats  guano  supplying  100  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre 
was  the  equivalent  of  dried  blood  and  tankage  applied  at  twice  that  rate, 
or  ammonium  sulfate  put  on  at  the  same  rate. 

In  field  tests  with  oats  the  following  increases  in  yields  were  obtained: 


Increase 
per  acre 

200-pound  application  of  air-dry  guano  4.09  bushels 

400-pound  application  of  air-dry  guano  4.45  bushels 

100-pound  application  ammonium  sulfate  0.32  bushels 


Fertilizer  tests  indicate  that  good  bat  guano  is  an  excellent  fertilizer 
and  should  be  used  whenever  it  can  be  obtained  at  reasonable  cost. 

Studies  on  the  Longevity  of  P.  Radicicola  in  the  Soil  (Wm.  A.  Al- 
brecht).— Pseudomonas  radicicola  is  the  bacterium  which  produces  the 
nodules  on  the  roots  of  the  legumes  and  enables  these  plants  to  feed  on 
the  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  in  addition  to  that  in  the  soil.  When  the 
proper  bacteria  are  not  present,  the  soil  must  be  inoculated  or  the  bacteria 
introduced.  How  long  these  nodule-producing  organisms  live  in  soil  when 
once  introduced,  or  how  often  artificial  inoculation  is  necessary  is  an  open 
question.  In  this  study  attempt  is  being  made  to  answer  these  questions 
and  to  see  how  long  the  legume  bacteria  will  live  in  soil  under  various 
treatments. 

Two  different  soils  on  which  soybeans  and  red  clover  had  gi  own  with 
plenty  of  nodules  were  stored  under  different  conditions.  Samples  were 
left  out  of  doors  protected  from  contamination.  Others  were  dried  in  the 
sunlight,  and  some  in  the  dark,  and  later  stored  so  as  to  be  free  from 
chance  contamination.  At  intervals  of  a half  year  these  soils  are  planted 
with  their  respective  legumes  whose  seeds  were  sterilized  to  see  if  there 
are  enough  bacteria  in  the  soil  to'  produce  good  root  infection. 

Tests  have  been  run  at  intervals  of  six  months  for  the  past  year  and 
will  be  continued  for  some  time.  The  results  indicate  clearly  that  even 


40  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


tho  the  soil  may  have  been  dried  in  the  sun  there  are  enough  viable  bacteria 
to  produce  as  good  an  infection  as  the  soil  which  was  dried  in  the  dark, 
or  that  left  out  of  doors.  In  gathering  an  infected  soil  with  which  to  inocu- 
late a new  field  there  is  no  such  great  danger  in  exposing  this  inoculating 
material  to  the  sun  as  has  once  been  suggested.  Drying  in  the  sunlight 
and  storing  in  the  dry  state  for  six  to  twelve  months  seems  to  have  no 
seriously  injurious  effect  on  the  inoculating  power  of  the  soil  as  compared 
to  a soil  left  in  its  natural  condition  out  of  doors.  With  this  fact  estab- 
lished one  can  gather  a well-infected  soil  in  the  season  when  nodules  of 
the  legume  are  plentiful  and  store  that  soil  in  the  dry  state  for  use  as  in- 
oculating material  the  next  year. 

The  following  table  giving  the  nodule  production  on  plants  grown 
in  soils  differently  treated  shows  that  the  destructive  action  by  sunlight 
is  not  so  serious. 

Treatment  Nodules  pei  plant 

Soybean  Red  clover 

Dried  in  the  sun,  stored  six  months 4 8 

Dried  in  the  dark,  stored  six  months 6 8 

No  treatment,  fresh  field  soil  used  for  test  7 4 

Effect  of  Weathering  and  Storage  Upon  the  Composition  of  Barnyard 
Manure  (M.  F.  Miller,  F.  L.  Duley). — In  this  experiment  one  ton  of  mule 
manure  that  had  been  trampled  down  in  barn  during  the  winter  was  stored 
in  a galvanized  iron  pan,  ten  feet  square  and  six  inches  deep.  Another 
ton  was  placed  in  a similar  pan,  but  a drainage  tub  was  provided  to  carry 
away  the  leachings  from  rain  water.  A third  ton  of  the  same  manure  was 
placed  on  the  ground  in  a conical  pile. 

The  manure  was  thoroly  mixed  and  sampled  at  the  beginning  and  again 
at  the  end  of  the  experiment.  The  samples  were  analyzed  for  their  plant- 
food  value  and  it  was  found  that  after  five  months’  exposure  to  the  weath- 
er the  manure  stored  in  a pan  without  drainage  or  in  a conical  pile  lost 
about  one-third  of  the  dry  matter,  while  the  pan  having  drainage  lost  45 
per  cent  of  the  dry  weight.  The  loss  of  nitrogen  in  the  conical  pile  was 
slightly  less  than  in  the  undrained  pan,  but  the  loss  of  potash  was  nearly 
five  times  as  great.  The  greatest  loss  of  potash  occurred  in  the  drained 
pan,  which  roughly  represented  the  condition  of  an  open  barnlot.  In  this 
case  the  potassium  loss  was  47  per  cent. 

It  was  found  from  the  manure  in  the  drained  pan  that  only  a very 
small  amount  of  nitrogen  is  lost  in  the  leachings.  A much  greater  amount 
of  this  element  is  lost  in  a gaseous  form  to  the  air  thru  fermentation. 

Studies  of  Water  Absorption,  Runoff,  Percolation,  Evaporation,  Capil- 
lary Water  Movement  and  Soil  Erosion  Under  Field  Conditions  (M.  F. 
Miller,  F.  L.  Duley). — A summary  of  two  years’  results  to  May  1,  1919, 
shows  that  land  plowed  eight  inches  deep  lost  nearly  two  and  one-half 
times  as  much  soil  as  land  having  no  cultivation,  except  that  the  weeds 
were  pulled.  Land  plowed  four  inches  deep  lost  nearly  as  much  as  that 
plowed  eight  inches  deep.  This  great  loss  of  soil  from  the  deeply  plowed 
land  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  several  of  the  rains  were  very 
heavy  and  came  in  downpours.  When  rains  are  light  and  well  distributed 
there  is  always  more  erosion  as  well  as  much  greater  runoff  from  the 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  41 


unplowed  land.  This  is  due  to  the  greater  absorbtive  capacity  of  the  loose 
•soil.  The  usefulness  of  deep  plowing  for  preventing  erosion,  however,  will 
■depend  very  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  rainfall.  Sod  land  was  mosi 
•efficient  in  preventing  erosion  and  at  the  same  time  absorbed  a greater- 
percent  of  the  rainfall  than  any  of  the  other  plots.  Land  in  continuous 
wheat  is  almost  as  efficient,  but  may  lose  considerable  soil  when  the  land 
is  first  broken  and  when  the  wheat  is  small.  The  land  having  a rotation  of 
corn,  wheat  and  clover  has  lost  very  little  soil  except  during  the  time  the 
land  was  in  corn.  The  land  in  continuous  corn  has  lost  about  the  same 
amount  of  soil  as  the  uncultivated  land,  and  less  than  half  as  much  as  the 
land  plowed  to  the  same  depth  and  having  no  crop. 

About  60  per  cent  of  the  rainfall  has  been  absorbed  on  the  uncultivated 
soil,  about  74  per  cent  on  the  plowed  soil,  and  about  87  per  cent  on  the 
•sod  land. 

Nitrate  Production  in  a Soil  as  Affected  by  the  Crop  and  Cultivation 

(Wm.  A.  Albrecht). — The  results  of  the  past  two  years  indicated  the  fol- 
lowing: 

1.  The  most  significant  influence  of  the  crops  is  that  of  removing  the 
nitrates.  The  accumulation  of  nitrates  is  related  to  the  growth  of  the  crop. 
Tor  corn,  the  nitrates  increase  to  considerable  concentration  until  late 
June  and  early  July,  or  until  the  crop  makes  a vigorous  growth,  and  then 
they  are  rapidly  exhausted.  On  soil  with  grass  crop,  the  nitrates  increase 
in  early  spring  with  warming  weather,  but  these  are  soon  reduced  to  a low 
level,  in  fact,  so  low  as  to  be  scarcely  detectable.  They  remain  low  during 
the  entire  season,  and  increase  only  in  the  spring  before  the  growing  crop 
•can  draw  on  them.  Oats  and  wheat  exhaust  the  nitrates  most  completely 
hy  June.  Following  the  crop  there  is  usually  a small  increase,  but  the  con- 
centration never  reaches  the  level  attained  in  the  uncropped  soil.  Low 
nitrate  in  cropped  soil  cannot  be  due  to  a toxic  inhibition  by  the  plant,  but 
is  due  to  removal  since  crops  like  corn  allow  nitrates  to  increase  until  the 
crop  is  making  its  maximum  growth.  Were  the  effects  of  the  roots  toxic, 
this  increase  should  not  be  noticed. 

2.  Plowing  has  a very  significant  effect  toward  increasing  nitrates. 
The  plot  which  was  plowed  and  kept  free  of  weeds  by  scraping  was  con- 
tinually higher  in  nitrates  than  the  adjoining  plot  unplowed  and  weed-free. 
Two  plots  with  similar  soil  treatment  but  cropped  to  corn  show  similar 
results  in  accumulations  of  nitrates  previous  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
•corn,  but  when  the  crop  develops  rapidly  it  removes  the  nitrates  more 
•completely.  This  is  due  to  better  root  penetration  by  the  crop.  The  fact 
that  plowing  increases  nitrate  production  is  of  much  significance  to  em- 
phasize early  plowing.  Plowing  early  for  wheat  has  perhaps  its  biggest 
advantage  in  causing  nitrates  to  accumulate  for  some  time  so  as  to  start 
the  plants  vigorously  after  seeding  and  thus  pass  the  winter  better  than  on 
•soil  plowed  late. 

3.  Cultivation  of  the  surface  soil  reduces  the  nitrate  in  the  upper 
seven  inches  of  soil.  Plots,  both  the  plowed  and  unplowed,  which  were 
scraped  to  remove  weeds,  had  higher  amounts  of  nitrates  present  regularly 
than  plants  whose  surface  was  cultivated  during  the  season.  This  may  be 
•due  to  the  removal  of  moisture  from  the  surface  so  that  layer  prohibited 
nitrate  production.  Drawing  a seven-inch  sample  gets  only  a small  part  of 


42  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 

the  moist  soil,  too  small  to  give  significant  amounts  even  tho  the  concen- 
tration may  have  been  greater  than  that  in  the  uncultivated  soil.  This  in- 
dicates that  tillage  may  hold  down  nitrate  production  in  the  immediate 
surface  and  even  in  the  upper  seven  inches  there  may  be  less  nitrates  on 
cultivated  soil  than  in  the  scraped  soil.  This  indicates  that  our  surface 
cultivation  should  be  shallow  to  remove  the  weeds  and  allow  nitrates  to  in- 
crease. Shallow  cultivation  is  better  than  the  deep  cultivation  so  far  as  the 
nitrogen  feeding  of  the  plants  is  concerned. 

4.  The  most  outstanding  result  obtained  is  the  depressive  effect  of  the 
mulch  on  nitrate  accumulation.  At  no  time  during  two  years  has  the 
fallow  mulched  soil  contained  significant  amounts  of  nitrate  nitrogen.  The 
maximum  accumulation  was  27  pounds  following  four  weeks  of  very  drj 
weather.  Of  all  the  fallow  plots  this  has  been  the  lowest,  going  no  highei 
than  27  pounds  of  nitrate  nitrogen  an  acre. 

Moisture  seems  to  be  the  factor  that  is  responsible  either  directly  or 
indirectly  by  influencing  the  temperature.  The  moisture  content  and  the 
nitrate  content  are  negatively  correlated.  The  average  temperature  of  the 
mulched  soil  from  June  to  August  1918  was  25.35°  C.  as  compared  to 
33.06°  C.  and  33.92°  C.  for  the  fallow  plots  plowed  and  unplowed.  The  low 
nitrate  content  of  this  plot  is  very  characteristic,  and  mulching  could 
scarcely  be  good  practice  with  crops  that  have  a high  nitrogen  need. 

5.  Nitrates  are  affected  by  the  rainfall  of  the  season.  Long  continued 
rains  remove  the  nitrates,  especially  in  tilled  soils,  while  downpours  are 
not  so  serious  as  one  might  expect.  Significant  reductions  in  nitrate  fol- 
low continued  rains  on  open  soils. 

6.  Another  interesting  fact  is  the  high  concentration  of  nitrates 
reached  in  a fallow  soil.  In  1917  the  plowed  but  uncultivated  plot  reached 
a concentration  of  204  pounds  of  nitrogen  as  nitrate  an  acre,  while  in  the 
year  following  it  went  as  high  as  236  pounds  of  this  form  of  nitrogen.  In 
terms  of  sodium  nitrate  this  latter  figure  would  be  equivalent  to  more  than 
1,400  pounds  of  sodium  nitrate  to  the  acre.  Such  high  concentrations  em- 
phasize the  activities  of  the  bacteria  which  produce  the  nitrate  form  of 
nitrogen. 

Experiments  to  Determine  the  Best  Systems  of  Soil  Management  for 
the  Most  Important  Soil  Types  in  Missouri  (M.  F.  Miller,  F.  L.  Duley). — 
The  following  fields  have  been  in  operation  during  the  past  fiscal  year: 


Field  Name 

County 

Soil  Type 

Billings 

Christian 

....  Crawford  silt  loam 

Cuba*  

Crawford 

Lebanon  silt  loam 

Chillicothe  

Livingston 

Wabash  clay 

Eldorado  Springs* 

Cedar 

Bates  silt  loam 

Hurdlandt  

Knox 

Grundy  silt  loam 

Kirksville  

Adair 

Bindley  silt  loam 

Maryville  

Nodaway 

Marshall  silt  loam 

Morley  

Scott 

Sarpy  sandy  loam 

Poplar  Bluff  

Butler 

Waverly  silt  loam 

Potage  des  Sioux  . 

St.  Charles 

Wabash  clay 

St.  James  

Phelps 

Gerald  silt  loam 

Strafford  

Greene 

Lebanon  gravelly  loam 

Union  

Union  silt  loam 

Vandalia  

Putnam  silt  loam 

Willow  Springs  

Howell 

Clarksville  silt  loam 

Windsor  

Oswego  silt  loam 

'Established  during 

year.  tClosed  during  year. 

Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  43 


During  the  year  farmers  meetings  have  been  held  at  St.  James,  Willow 
Springs  and  Union.  Some  other  meetings  were  postponed  on  account  of 
the  wet  weather  and  the  farmers  getting  behind  with  their  work.  These 
meetings  are  proving  one  of  the  best  ways  to  interest  farmers  in  the  re- 
sults of  the  experiment  fields.  The  meetings  are  usually  held  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  Extension  Service  and  after  the  farmers  are  conducted  over 
the  field  a general  meeting  is  held  for  discussion  and  lecture  upon  various 
topics. 

During  the  year  a new  field  has  been  established  on  the  Bates  silt 
loam  at  Eldorado  Springs.  While  no  figures  have  been  obtained  the 
wheat  showed  some  very  remarkable  results  from  the  use  of  acid  phos- 
phate. Another  field  was  opened  at  Cuba  in  Crawford  County  on  the 
Lebanon  silt  loam.  This  field  is  in  conjunction  with  the  work  carried  on 
at  the  same  place  by  the  Field  Crops  department. 

The  results  obtained  on  the  various  fields  have  been  in  harmony  with 
those  obtained  in  previous  years.  The  three  things  gi\ing  most  consistent 
and  economic  returns  are  mamue,  soluble  phosphates,  and  limestone.  An 
average  of  the  results  showing  the  effect  of  manure  in  a four-year  rotation 
applied  at  the  rate  of  eight  tons  an  acre  before  corn,  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


Crop 

No.  of 
trials 

Inc.  from 
manure 

Value  at  1918 
prices 

Value  at  normal 
prices 

Corn  

61 

10.50  bu. 

$13.12 

$ 6.30 

Oats  

35 

5.17  bu. 

3.36 

2.07 

Wheat  

57 

5.24  bu. 

10.48 

5.24 

Clover  

13 

937  lbs. 

11.71 

5.62 

Total  value  of  increase 
Increase  for  each  ton  i 

in  four-yeai 
nanure  .... 

r rotation 

$38.67 
$ 4.83 

$19.23 
$ 2.40 

Bone  meal  has  increased  the  yield  of  wheat  by  5.5  bushels  an  acre,  and 
corn  4.3  bushels.  This  would  mean  an  increase  of  approximately  $18  an 
acre  on  these  crops  alone  for  an  investment  of  about  $6.50.  In  addition  to 
this,  the  residual  effect  of  this  same  fertilizer  has  been  4.6  bushels  of  oats 
and  about  one-half  ton  of  clover  hay. 

The  return  from  acid  phosphate  has  been  approximately  the  same 
except  the  residual  effect  has  been  somewhat  less.  On  certain  thin  Ozark 
soils  bone  meal  has  shown  a very  decided  advantage  over  acid  phosphate 
in  the  residual  effect  it  exerts  upon  the  growth  of  clover. 

An  average  of  all  the  results  obtained  from  the  use  of  raw  rock  phos- 
phate shows  that  it  has  scarcely  paid  the  cost  of  application.  In  justice  to 
this  material,  however,  it  should  be  stated  that  on  certain  soils  this  form 
of  phosphorus  has  given  satisfactory  returns. 

The  use  of  ground  limestone  has  brought  good  returns  on  the  more 
acid  soils  of  the  state,  particularly  the  level  prairies  of  northeast  and  south- 
west Missouri,  and  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Ozark  region.  Some  atten- 
tion has  been  given  the  furthering  of  the  use  of  limestone  on  the  more 


44  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


acid  types  occupied  by  these  fields.  In  some  communities  home  crushers 
are  being  installed. 

In  summarizing  the  results  with  the  various  fertilizers  it  is  very  evi- 
dent that  the  profits  to  be  expected  from  those  that  give  increased  re- 
turns are  decidedly  greater  at  the  present  time  with  the  high  prices 
of  farm  products  than  they  were  a few  years  ago  with  lower  prices  of  fer- 
tilizers and  normal  prices  for  crops.  All  evidence  goes  to  show  that  it  is 
more  profitable  to  use  fertilizer  now  than  it  has  been  in  the  past. 

The  Determination  and  Mapping  of  Missouri  Soil  Types  (M.  F.  Mil- 
ler, H.  H.  Krusekopf,  Wm.  DeYoung). — A constant  effort  is  being  made  to 
map  the  soils  of  the  state  with  more  detail  and  accuracy,  and  great  im- 
provement has  been  made  over  the  earlier  work.  One  of  the  difficulties 
encountered  is  that  new  and  inexperienced  men  must  be  used,  and  require 
from  two  to  three  years  of  training  before  they  can  do  the  most  proficient 
work, 

Reynolds  and  Chariton  counties  have  been  surveyed  during  the  year. 
Soil  survey  reports  were  prepared  for  Knox,  St.  Francois,  Reynolds  and 
Chariton  counties.  St.  Francois  county  was  surveyed  in  1915,  but  on  ac- 
count of  the  resignation  of  the  man  in  charge  of  the  party,  and  on  account 
of  lack  of  data,  the  preparation  of  the  report  was  delayed. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 

Contagious  Abortion  Investigations  (J.  W.  Connaway,  A.  J.  Durant. 
H.  G.  Newman). — Serological  tests,  including  retests,  were  made  on  1,260 
blood  samples  from  51  herds  comprising  587  animals.  The  number  of  posi- 
tive reacting  animals  was  171;  the  number  of  negative  was  416.  The  in- 
fection was  found  in  35  herds,  while  the  blood  samples  from  16  other  sus- 
pected herds  were  found  to  be  negative. 

Other  experiments  were  made  to  determine:  (a)  The  specificity  of  the 
Bacillus  abortus  of  Bang;  (b)  Whether  this  organism  can  invade  the 
healthy  uterus  after  pregnancy  has  occurred,  and  after  the  so-called 
“uterine  seal”  has  formed;  (c)  Whether  the  Bang  bacillus  can  invade  the 
pregnant  uterus  thru  various  channels,  namely,  thru  the  vagina,  thru  the 
blood  stream  after  entry  into  the  alimentary  tract  by  way  of  the  mouth, 
or  after  entry  into  the  udder  thru  the  teats;  or  after  hypodermic  injection 
of  live  cultures  into  the  subcutaneous  tissues. 

The  artificial  infections  were  carried  out  as  follows:  Two  heifers  were 
fed  cultures  of  Bacillus  abortus  Bang;  two  heifers  were  infected  by  in- 
jection of  Bacillus  abortus  Bang  cultures  into  the  udder  thru  the  teats 
after  inserting  a sterile  milk  tube.  Cultures  of  the  Bacillus  abortus  Bang 
were  injected  into  the  vagina  of  only  one  heifer  (the  experiment  mate  had 
died).  Two  heifers  were  injected  subcutaneously  with  a saline  suspension 
of  Bacillus  abortus  Bang  culture.  Only  one  animal  was  available  for  in- 
fection by  contact  exposure.  This  cow  was  exposed  daily  by  contact  with 
two  heifers  which  aborted  after  being  fed  cultures  of  Bacillus  abortus 
Bang.  Every  female  in  the  experiment  developed  positive  reaction  to  the 
blood  tests  for  abortion  disease,  and  have  remained  reactors.  Milk  from 
all  the  heifers  from  which  milk  could  be  obtained,  gave  positive  reaction  to 
the  Bacillus  abortus  Bang  antigen.  All  the  living  calves  showed  a positive 


Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  45 

reaction  to  the  test  at  birth,  but  in  time  ceased  to  react,  as  is  true  of  calves 
from  naturally  infected  mothers  in  farm  herds. 

Serological  tests  with  Bacillus  abortus  Bang  antigen. — Six  pregnant 
sows  were  inoculated  with  cultures  of  Bacillus  abortus  Bang  of  bovine 
origin,  one  intra-muscular,  two  intra-axillary,  and  two  by  vaginal  injection. 
Of  the  four  pregnant  sows  inoculated  with  Bang  abortus  bacilli  by  means 
of  the  hypodermic  syringe  (intravenously,  intra-axillary  and  intra-muscu- 
larly)  two  sows  aborted,  another  which  was  a positive  reactor  had  a dead 
pig  (six  apparently  healthy  living  pigs)  and  one  had  four  runty  pigs.  Two 
of  these  four  sows  showed  a distinctly  positive  reaction  to  the  serological 
test  for  abortion  disease.  The  two  pregnant  sows  which  were  given  a 
vaginal  injection  of  the  Bang  abortion  bacilli  did  not  abort  nor  show  any 
reaction  to  the  abortion  test. 

MISCELLANEOUS  ACTIVITIES  OF  THE  STATION 

Seed  Testing  Laboratory  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  Mrs.  Norma  Cardinell, 
Miss  Helen  Averitt). — Number  of  samples  received  from  Missouri,  2251; 
Kansas,  325;  Nebraska,  132;  Iowa,  109;  South  Dakota,  73;  Colorado,  21; 
Arkansas,  13;  New  York,  4;  Illinois,  1;  Custom  House,  26.  Total  num- 
ber samples  received,  2955. 


Number  of  tests  made  for 

Purity  963 

Germination  2710 

Examination  32 

Identification  92 

Custom  House  52 

Total  3849 

Number  of  samples  received — 

July  1,  1917,  to  June  30,  1918  4464 

July  1,  1918,  to  June  30,  1919  2955 

Decrease  1509 


The  difference  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  1917-18  a campaign  for  the 
testing  of  seed  corn  was  carried  out,  which  resulted  in  2182  tests  of  seed 
corn  by  the  laboratory.  In  1918-19  there  was  no  such  campaign  and  only 
a few  samples  of  corn  reached  the  laboratory.  The  work  of  the  laboratory 
therefore  dealt  only  with  clover,  grasses  and  small  grains.  With  this 
class  of  seeds  791  more  tests  were  made  in  1918-19  than  in  1917-18.  The 
primary  purpose  of  the  laboratory  is  to  test  the  class  of  seeds  whose  value 
cannot  readily  be  determined  by  the  farmer  himself,  and  along  this  line 
there  was  a substantial  increase  during  the  past  year. 

A project  in  seed  testing  cooperative  with  the  county  agents  has  proved 
very  successful.  County  agents  collect  and  send  to  the  laboratory  samples 
of  seed  sold  in  their  respective  territories.  Duplicate  reports  are  sent  to 
the  agent  and  to  the  person  or  firm  from  whom  the  sample  was  collected. 
By  noting  the  success  of  the  seed  from  which  the  sample  was  collected  the 
agent,  knowing  also  the  laboratory  analysis  of  the  seed,  gains  a talking 
point  for  the  use  of  good  seed.  He  may  learn  also  the  sources  from  which 


46  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


seed  of  a given  grade  have  been  consistently  supplied  and  may  recommend 
the  purchase  of  seed  from  the  best  sources.  This  project,  started  late  in 
the  year,  is  very  popular  with  the  agents,  who  at  once  realized  its  possibili- 
ties, and  it  promises  to  develop  into  one  of  the  most  useful  extension  pro- 
jects of  the  College  of  Agriculture. 

In  cooperation  with  the  county  agents  the  laboratory  is  also  engaged 
in  a practical  survey  of  the  farm  weeds  of  the  state.  The  agents  collect 
and  send  to  the  laboratory  the  important  noxious  weeds  of  their  territories. 
The  laboratory  identifies  the  weeds  and  advises  the  agents  of  methods  for 
control.  When  the  survey  is  completed  a list  of  all  weeds  received  from 
various  parts  of  the  state,  together  with  methods  for  their  control,  will  be 
sent  to  each  agent.  Thru  this  project  the  agents  will  gain  much  valuable 
information  on  weed  identification  and  control,  and  the  department  of 
Farm  Crops  will  become  informed  on  the  location  of  the  various  noxious 
weeds  of  the  state. 

The  equipment  of  the  laboratory  has  been  largely  increased  by  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  during  the  past  year,  and  the  Bureau  has  at  all 
times  kept  the  laboratory  well  supplied  with  competent  analyses. 

Fertilizer  Control  (F.  B.  Mumford,  Director;  L.  D.  Haigh,  E .E.  Vanat- 
ta,  Chemists). — The  analytical  work  of  the  state  fertilizer  control  ends  in 
December  of  each  year.  The  annual  report  is  published  as  promptly  as 
possible  after  the  close  of  the  year.  The  report  for  1918,  Bulletin  160,  was 
issued  in  January,  1919.  Five  hundred  and  fifty-three  samples  were  col- 
lected. The  inspectors  visited  113  towns  in  46  counties.  Two  hundred  and 
fifty-three  samples  were  analyzed  and  reported.  There  were  also  sent  in 
by  farmers  42  samples  of  limestone  and  related  material  used  for  correct- 
ing soil  acidity.  These  were  tested  for  their  neutralizing  power,  and  report 
made. 

The  results  show  that  the  compositions  of  fertilizers  this  year  varied 
more  than  they  should  under  normal  conditions.  The  great  demand  for 
fertilizer  due  to  war  conditions  coupled  with  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
basic  materials  of  uniform  composition  largely  explain  this  condition. 
The  average  result  in  plant-food  valuation  of  all  samples  analyzed  shows, 
however,  plant  food  to  the  value  of  $1.07  a ton  in  excess  of  the  value  of 
the  amount  guaranteed. 

Official  Testing  of  Dairy  Cows  (A.  C.  Ragsdale,  M.  H.  Fohrman).— 
During  the  year  just  completed  403  cows  were  officially  tested  for  32 
breeders  in  13  counties  of  the  state.  Supervisors  made  232  visits  to  breed- 
ers and  conducted  1830  two-day  tests  and  50  seven-day  tests.  Despite  the 
increased  railroad  fare  and  hotel  meal  rates,  the  cost  to  breeders  of  con- 
ducting these  tests  were  held  down  so  that  it  compares  favorably  with 
previous  years  as  is  indicated  in  the  following  tables: 


Year 

2-day 

tests 

Cost  for 
a test 

7-day 

tests 

Cost  for 
a test 

1915-1916  

1683 

$1.09 

17 

$10.20 

1916-191 7 

1920 

1.01 

42 

13.25 

1917-1918  

1343 

1.12 

114 

10.60 

1918-1919  

1930 

1.24 

50 

9.73 

Work  and  Progress  of  the 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station  47 


The  following  tabulation  shows  the  progress  of  this  work  for  the  past 
four  years: 


Fiscal 

year 

ending  J 

une  30, 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

No. 

cows  tested  

..  336 

413 

349 

403 

No. 

breeders  represented.... 

24 

26 

28 

32 

No. 

2-day  tests  

..  1744 

2072 

1473 

1830 

No. 

7-day  tests  

22 

47 

25 

50 

Nursery  Inspection  (L.  Haseman,  K.  C.  Sullivan). — For  the  last  three 
or  four  years,  owing  to  a general  setback  in  the  matter  of  fruit  tree  prop- 
agation, the  list  of  Missouri  nurserymen  has  gradually  grown  less  and  less. 
Due  to  ever  increasing  vigilance  in  the  matter  of  inspection  and  the  con- 
demnation of  scale  infested  and  diseased  stock,  the  nurseries  have  been 
freed  from  San  Jose  scale  to  a very  large  extent. 


Nursery  stock  which  has  been  condemned  by  the  inspector. 


Nurseries  inspected  96 

Nurseries  certified  90 

Nurseries  found  infested  with  San  Jose  scale 2 

Total  acreage  of  nursery  stock  inspected 1,303 

No.  of  counties  in  which  nurseries  were  inspected....  40 

No.  of  men  making  inspection  3 

No.  of  cases  imported  nursery  stock  inspected 127 

No.  of  foreign  plants  inspected  319,631 

No.  of  counties  in  which  these  shipments  were 

inspected  — 9 

Certificates  and  Permits  Issued 

Inspection  certificates  issued  103 

Dealers  certificates  47 

Agents  permits  issued  131 

Growers  permits  issued  to  outside  nurseries 169 


48  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  172 


FINANCIAL  STATEMENT 

The  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in  account  with  the  United 
States  Appropriation — 1918-19 


To  receipts  from  Treasurer  of  the  U.  S.  as  per  ap-  Dr.  Cr. 

propriation  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1919,  un- 
der the  Acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2,  1887, 

and  March  16,  1906  $30,000.00 

By  salaries  $17, 321. 49- 

Labor  4,153.12 

Postage  and  stationery  215.97 

Freight  and  express  715.35 

Heat,  light,  water,  and  power  81.07 

Chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies  847.98 

Seeds,  plants,  and  sundry  supplies  637.83 

Fertilizers  8.50 

Feeding  stuffs  3,257.46 

Tools,  machinery,  and  appliances  337.62 

Furniture  and  fixtures  921.54 

Scientific  apparatus  and  specimens  537.81 

Live  stock  421.70 

Traveling  expenses  43.36 

Buildings  and  land  499.20 


$30,000.00  $30,000.00 


We,  the  undersigned,  duly  appointed  auditors  of  the  corporation,  do 
hereby  certify  that  we  have  examined  the  books  and  accounts  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri,  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  for  the 
fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1919;  that  we  have  found  the  same  well  kept 
and  classified  as  above;  that  the  receipts  for  the  year  from  the  treasurer  of 
the  United  States  are  shown  to  have  been  $30,000.00,  and  the  corresponding 
disbursements  $30,000,000  for  all  of  which  proper  vouchers  are  on  file  and 
have  been  by  us  examined  and  found  correct. 

And  we  further  certify  that  the  expenditures  have  been  solely  for  the 
purpose  set  forth  in  the  Acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2,  1887,  and 
March  16,  1906. 

Attest : 

J.  G.  Babb  Edward  E.  Brown, 

Secretary  Business  Manager, 

Acting  as  Auditor  for  the  Board  of  Curators 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  173 


ASHLAND  COMMUNITY  SURVEY 

An  Economic,  Social  and  Sanitary  Survey  in  Howard  County, 

Missouri 


Fig.  1. — Ashland  Church  Community  Center.  High  school  in  basement. 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
JULY,  1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL, 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

C.  B.  ROLLINS,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Columbia  Kansas  City 

JOHN  H.  BRADLEY, 

Kennett 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 


STATION 

July, 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E-  Vanatta,  A.  M. 

Emory  M.  Roller 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

E.  H.  Lehmann,  B.  S.  in  A.  E. 

Mack  M.  Jones 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Ray  E.  Miller,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

J.  H.  LonGwELL,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  E.  Maneval,  Ph.  D. 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 
A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  C.  Dahlberg,  M.  S. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Percy  Werner,  Jr.,  A.  M. 

W.  H.  E.  Reed,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D 
C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J-  Stadler,  A.  M. 

Un  service  of  U.  S 


STAFF 

1920 

RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

R.  M.  Green,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Ph.  D. 

H.  F.  Major,  B.  S.  A. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S.  H. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L-  Kempster,  B.  S. 

G.  W.  Hervey,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connoway,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 
R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
J.  G.  Babb,  A.  M.,  Secretary 
E.  H.  Hughes,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Dean 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 
George  Reeder,  Director  Weather  Bureau 
Miss  Bertha  Hite,1  Seed  Testing  Laboratory 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 


Department  of  Agriculture. 


Ashland  Community  Survey 

An  Economic,  Social  and  Sanitary  Survey  in 
Howard  County,  Missouri. 

Carl  C.  Taylor,  E.  W.  Lehmann 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATION. 

Through  the  eyes  of  the  farmer,  himself. — In  the  rapid  advance  of  farm- 
ing as  a business  enterprise  which  has  taken  place  in  the  last  fifteen  years, 
and  in  the  great  push  forward  in  the  line  of  farm  production  which  took 
place  during  the  war  period,  American  agriculture  progressed  in  technical 
proficiency  at  a rate  not  equalled  at  any  other  period  of  our  national  de- 
velopment. The  advance  has  been  so  rapid  and  the  emphasis  has  been 
so  thoroly  on  production,  however,  that  it  is  sometimes  to  be  wondered 
if  we  may  not  be  overlooking  the  great  fundamentals  in  farm  life,  viz.,  the 
men,,  women  and  children  who  live  on  the  farm.  It  can  be  readily  con- 
ceived that  the  people  who  do  not  live  on  the  farms  and  whose  ease  of 
living  depends  largely  upon  the  economic  efficiency  of  these  farm  people 
should  think  of  farmers  only  as  producing  units.  It  is  quite  incon- 
ceivable that  farmers  should  ever  accept  this  viewpoint  themselves.  For 
them  the  one  supreme  question  must  be,  is  farm  life  an  adequate  life?  This 
study  was  made  with  the  idea  in  mind  of  emphasizing  those  factors  on 
the  farm  which  bear  closest  relation  to  the  every-day  life  of  the  people, 
without  forgetting  the  ever  necessary  economic  background,  viz.,  farm- 
ing as  a business.  It  is  hoped  that  by  looking  at  the  facts  gathered  in  this 
rather  exceptional  community  both  the  possibilities  and  neglect  of  the 
human  factors  on  the  farm  may  be  seen. 

Ashland  Community. — Ashland  Community  lies  in  a triangle  formed 
by  the  Missouri  River  on  the  west  and  south  and  Moniteau  Creek,  which 
flows  into  the  river,  on  the  south  and  east.  All  the  territory  surveyed, 
with  the  exception  of  small  portions  of  a few  of  the  farms,  lies  far  enough 
back  from  both  of  these  streams  as  not  to  be  in  the  bottoms.  The  fifty 
farms  surveyed  are  known  by  the  people  who  live  upon  them  and  by  all 
others  who  know  the  community,  to  constitute  the  heart  of  a real  rural 
neighborhood-community.  The  farmers  do  not  all  trade  at  the  same  town, 
all  belong  to  the  same  church,  or  all  mingle  together  with  the  same  degree 
of  neighborly  freedom,  nor  do  these  fifty  farms  include  all  the  people  who 
live  within  this  topographical  area.  They  are  representative,  however,  of 
the  best  which  lies  in  this  section  of  Missouri  and  the  neighborhood-com- 
munity is  known  widely  thruout  the  state  because  of  the  magnificent  rural 
church  it  has  built,  around  which  centers  the  religious,  educational  and  to 
some  degree  the  social  life  of  the  community. 

The  community  is  made  homogeneous  by  a factor  which  is  far  more 
fundamental,  so  far  as  farming  is  concerned,  than  the  existence  of  this 
semi-community  church,  viz.,  a homogeneous  topographical  area.  Every 
farm  can  be  characterized  as  rolling  and  the  soil  type  is  almost  universally 
clay  loam. 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 


This  community  in  addition  to  being  a unit  in  physical  structure  and 
social  organization  has  been  a stable  community  for  many  years.  In  many 
cases  the  people  who  are  living  in  the  community  are  the  third  and  even 
fourth  generation  of  families  which  have  lived  in  this  same  community. 
The  average  length  of  residence  of  all  upon  the  farms  where  they  now 
live  has  been  twelve  and  a half  years.  Thirty-one  of  them  have  lived  in 
the  community  for  more  than  thirty  years.  Nine  of  them  have  been  on 
the  farms  they  now  occupy  for  more  than  fifteen  years.  Thirty-nine  of 
them  have  never  done  anything  other  than  farm.  There  are  but  five  families 
in  the  community  which  have  ever  lived  in  another  state,  and  eleven  others 
who  have  ever  lived  out  of  Howard  County.  A community  is  an  institution 
which  it  takes  years  to  build  and  these  people  have  been  here  long  enough 
to  build  one. 

The  farm  families  of  the  community  are  well-to-do  financially  and  con- 
siderably above  the  average  in  educational  status,  as  will  later  be  seen. 
Eight  of  the  farmers  had  money  invested  in  enterprises  other  than  farm- 
ing. Some  of  them  had  bought  as  high  as  $4000  worth  of  Liberty  Bonds, 
and  all  but  three  of  them  paid  their  bills  regularly  thru  checking  accounts. 
Seventeen  of  them  said  they  never  paid  a bill  any  other  way.  More  than 
half  of  them  read  College  of  Agriculture  bulletins  regularly  and  feel  that 
they  receive  material  benefit  from  them. 

The  church  organization  itself  is  the  oldest  Christian  church  organi- 
zation west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  celebrated  its  centennial  anniver- 
sary in  November,  1917.  The  present  church  edifice  is  a beautiful  brick 
structure  which  with  its  total  equipment  cost  $14,500  (in  1914).  It  is  re- 
cognized as  a “community  building.”  A four-year  subscription  high  school 
is  housed  in  its  basement.  It  was  being  used  as  a Red  Cross  work  room 
at  the  time  of  the  survey.  All  agricultural  club  meetings,  road  meetings, 
literary  meetings  or  other  community  enterprises  center  in  this  building. 

The  church  is  about  equidistant  from  the  three  chief  trading  centers, 
being  eight  miles  from  Rocheport,  eight  miles  from  New  Franklin  and 
seven  and  a half  miles  from  Fayette.  The  average  distance  from  the  farm- 
steads to  the  church  is  three  and  nine  tenths  miles,  and  to  the  towns  in 
which  the  people  chiefly  market  is  three  and  nine  tenths  miles.  There  are 
no  hard-surface  roads  in  the  community,  though  the  roads  are  almost 
universally  well  dragged.  Only  one  farmer  asserted  that  his  road  to  market 
was  really  “bad.”  Six  more  of  them  had  some  portion  of  the  road  which 
was  only  “fair.”  All  others  designated  their  roads  to  market  as  “good.” 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  it  is  of  little  use  to  attempt  to  hold  a 
community  meeting  of  any  type  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  or  immediately 
after  a rain  storm,  for  practically  all  these  people  travel  in  automobiles  and 
can  not  come  over  the  dirt  roads  at  such  times.  Hard-surfaced  roads 
would  do  much  to  improve  the  life  and  conditions  of  the  community. 

ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS. 

Size  and  type  of  farms. — As  might  be  inferred  from  foregoing  state- 
ments, this  is  chiefly  a community  of  home  owners.  There  are  but  seven 
renters  in  the  community.  The  tenants,  with  one  exception  are  farming 
on  thorogoing  partnership  arrangements  with  the  owners,  i.  e.,  the  owner 
furnishes  the  land,  the  renter  the  labor  and  all  working  capital,  and  crops 


Ashland  Community  Survey 


b 


are  divided  equally.  The  average  size  of  the  farms  is  179.9  acres,  and  the 
average  value  per  acre  was,  in  1918,  $110.  The  average  area  in  field  crops 
is  125.2  acres.  This  leaves  practically  one-third  of  the  farming  area  in 
grass.  All  operators  except  three  are  practicing  some  systematic  crop- 
rotation  plan.  The  scheme  of  rotation  varies  from  systems  of  three  to 
seven  years.  Clover  is  a factor  on  every  farm  and  in  five  cases  commercial 
fertilizer  is  used. 

The  type  of  farming  is  that  which  generally  prevails  in  the  lower  corn 
belt,  viz.,  mixed  grains  and  stock  farming.  The  three  leading  grain  crops 
in  order  are,  corn,  wheat  and  oats.  The  three  leading  kinds  of  live  stock 
in  order  of  importance  are,  hogs,  cattle  and  sheep.  Hogs  and  corn  pro- 
duction are  the  chief  industries  tho  a good  many  cattle  are  fed  and  the  sheep 
industry  is  gaining  in  the  community.  No  one  of  these  farmers  was,  at 
the  time  of  the  survey,  specializing  in  purebred  live  stock,  tho  20  of  them 
had  some  purebred  stock  on  their  farms.  The  community  is  not  a special- 
ized but  a mixed  stock  farming  type  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  only  fifteen 
per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  all  live  stock  was  purebred  stuff.  The  total 
value  of  all  live  stock  was  $157,333  while  the  total  value  of  the  purebreds 
was  but  $23,833.  One  of  the  greatest  needs  of  the  community  from  a pro- 
duction standpoint  is  more  purebred  live  stock. 

Farm  improvements,  buildings,  fences,  orchards,  etc. — This  community 
is  above  the  average  of  mixed  farming  communities  in  central  Missouri  in 
farm  improvements  but  not  what  could  be  classed  as  a highly  improved 
community.  The  age  of  the  community  has  a great  deal  to  do  with  the 
'mprovement  of  the  farms.  As  will  later  be  seen  a good  many  modern 
conveniences  and  comforts  are  being  introduced  and  used  in  the  community. 
The  houses  are  for  the  most  part  old,  however,  which  makes  it  difficult 
to  introduce  modern  equipment,  and  the  farms  are  not,  for  the  most  part, 
what  would  be  called  highly  improved. 


Fig.  2. — A modern  barn  built  in  1915 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 


A few  of  the  more  recent  farms  are  quite  adequate  and  on  the  whole 
are  replacing  the  old  inadequate  ones  more  rapidly  than  are,  new  hou-es 
replacing  the  old  ones.  One  very  thrifty  owner  expressed  the  opinion  that 
“barns  will  build  houses  but  houses  won’t  build  barns.”  He  had  just  com- 
pleted a new  barn  and  the  house  was  greatly  in  need  of  repair.  Recently 
he  moved  from  this  place  to  another  where  neither  the  house  nor  barn  is 
new  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  another  barn  may  be  built;  and  this 
will  be  supposed  to  “build  the  house”  which,  as  in  the  last  place,  again  will 
not  be  built. 

The  fact  that  there  is  very  little  purebred  live  stock  in  the  community 
and  that  this  section  is  far  enough  south  to  avoid  the  severe  northern 
winters  leads  to  a noticeable  lack  of  farm  buildings.  The  average  of  the 
total  farm  improvements,  including  all  buildings,  fences,  orchards  and  other 
equipment  is  $4,192  per  farm.  This  is  but  21.2%  of  the  whole  value  of  the 
farms,  and  while  it  is  slightly  above  the  percentage  which  cost  accountants 
say  should  be  expended  on  the  most  economical  farms  of  the  size  of  these, 
it  is  again  a question  of  whether  the  farm  family  cares  to  live  in  a house 
gauged  solely  by  the  value  of  the  farm,  and  whether  the  farmer  should  make 
his  farm  life  disagreeable  in  exact  ratio  to  the  poverty  of  his  land.  It  is  not 
thought  a mark  of  extravagance  in  city  life  to  expend  twenty  per  cent  of 
one’s  income  on  mere  house  rent  and  it  is  the  writer’s  deepest  conviction 
that  farm  people  have  a right  to  as  great  a percentage  of  their  earnings 
and  capital  invested  in  farm  improvements  as  is  necessary  to  a happy  farm 
life  even  tho  it  exceed  the  economic  balance  of  one-fifth  of  the  total  capital 
invested  in  the  farm. 

Farm  machinery  and  labor-saving  devices. — The  average  estimated  value 
of  farm  machinery  per  farm  in  the  community  is  $1015.  This  is  $5.64  an 


Fig.  3. — Poor  methods  of  protecting  farm  machinery. 


Ashland  Community  Survey 


7 


ac-he  or  5.1%  of  the  value  of  the  land.  This  again  is  a very  favorable  show- 
ing according  to  accepted  standards.  There  are  always  two  principles  to 
keep  in  mind  in  the  purchase  and  use  of  farm  machines.  One  is  the  saving 
in  man  and  animal  power  and  time.  The  community  is  above  the  average 
in  this  respect.  There  were  on  these  farms,  6 gas  engines,  3 windmills,  9 
manure  spreaders,  11  two-row  corn  cultivators,  2 tractors,  11  gang  plows, 
30  hay  carriers,  11  silos,  and  6 cream  separators. 

The  other  principle  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  purchase  and  use  of  farm 
machinery  deals  with  the  care  and  upkeep  so  as  not  to  make  these  con- 
veniences an  economic  handicap  rather  than  an  economic  asset.  The  farm 
machinery  in  the  community  for  the  most  part  is  well  taken  care  of,  al- 
tho  thirteen  of  the  farmers  admitted  that  they  had  no  adequate  provision 
for  sheltering  their  common  field  implements. 

Vegetable,  fruit  and  poultry  products,  raised,  bought  and  sold. — Another 
indication  that  the  people  of  the  community  are  interested  largely  in  the 
life  on  their  farms  is  that  every  farm  in  the  community  with  one  exception 
is  raising  some  fruit  of  its  own.  The  one  exception  was  a newly  established 
residence.  Eight  of  these  farmers  bought  fruit  and  two  of  them  sold  fruit 
last  year.  To  be  without  a home  orchard  in  so  good  a fruit  community  as 
this  would  be  almost  unforgivable.  Only  one  family  bought  and  but  two 
families  sold  any  common  garden  vegetables.  Three  of  them  bought  and. 
eight  sold  potatoes.  The  selling  was  almost  universally  to  neighbors.  The 
greatest  quantity  sold  by  one  farmer  was  twenty-five  bushels.  Only  one 
farm  woman  had  sold  any  milk  in  the  past  year  and  five  others  had  sold 
cream.  Butter  was  sold  on  fifteen  farms,  104  lbs.  during  the  year  being 
the  greatest  amount  sold  by  any  one  farm  woman.  Poultry  was  sold  on 
all  farms  except  five,  and  eggs  sold  on  every  farm.  The  greatest  value  of 
poultry  sold  by  any  one  farm  woman  during  the  year  was  $300.  The  same 
farm  woman  sold  $240  worth  of  eggs.  The  greatest  value  received  by  any 
one  woman  for  eggs  was  $300.  Two  things  are  apparent  from  these  facts: 
first,  poultry  and  eggs  in  this  community  are  the  farm  woman’s  chief  somce 
of  income;  second,  that  the  community  is  not  specializing  in  robbing  its 
own  tables  by  sending  all  the  good  things  to  market.  To  this  fact  the 
surveyors  can  amply  testify  from  personal  experience  in  these  homes. 

Hired  help  on  the  farm  and  in  the  home.— That  the  farms  of  the  com- 
munity are  family  sized  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  but  fourteen  of  the 
foi  ty-four  farm  wives  employed  any  domestic  assistance  during  the  year. 
Six  of  them  had  regular  domestic  assistance,  two  had  hired  domestic  help 
for  over  six  months  of  the  year,  one  had  help  for  four  months,  one  for  one 
month  and  the  other  four  employed  assistance  regularly  one  or  two  days  a 
week.  Thirty  of  these  homes  hired  no  domestic  help  during  the  year.  This 
is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  daughters  of  the  family  offer  a good  bit  of 
assistance,  partly  due  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  domestic  servants,  and 
partly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  customary  for  the  housewife  to  do  the  work 
herself.  The  domestic  help  is  universally  negro  help  and  sleeps  on  the 
place,  in  a tenant  house  or  a servant  room  at  the  back  of  the  house  . 

Farm  help  was  hired  on  thirty  seven  of  the  forty-four  farms.  In  20 
cases  help  was  kept  the  year  around  and  in  all  but  seven  cases  was  hired 
regularly.  Field  hands  are  almost  universally  negroes  who,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, live  in  tenant  houses  on  the  place.  In  two  cases  white  hired  men 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 


live  with  the  families,  thus  increasing  the  work  of  the  housewife.  In  one 
of  these  cases  a household  servant  is  employed  to  assist  with  the  work  one 
day  each  week.  In  the  other  case  domestic  help  is  employed  regularly. 
In  the  latter  case  there  are  four  children  in  the  home. 

SOCIAL  CONDITIONS. 

What  is  an  efficient  social  life? — A satisfactory  life  is  so  much  a matter 
of  personal  taste,  and  people  are  so  universally  satisfied  with  tastes  which 
they  have  imbibed  from  their  own  home  surroundings  that  it  seems  to 
some  people  an  impossibility  to  set  standards  of  an  efficient  social  life.  There 
are  some  things,  however,  which  everyone  will  immediately  recognize  as 
essential  to  life  if  life  is  to  be  worth  living.  The  amount  or  degree  of 
these  essential  things  may  vary.  If  any  one  of  them  is  absent  there  is 
introduced  into  social  existence  an  undesirable  element  or  at  least  there 
is  left  out  a desirable  element.  These  socially  necessary  factors  are  food, 
clothing,  shelter,  health,  education,  religion,  recreation  and  association  with 
other  persons.  The  food  supply  is  almost  universally  adequate  on  the  farm. 
Clothing  is  measured  by  whether  it  fits  the  needs  of  the  occupation  and 
whether  the  people  are  “up  to  date,”  so  to  speak.  The  people  of  Ashland 
Community  are  universally  both  well  clad  and  well  dressed.  The  general 
health  is  good  in  practically  every  case.  Two  children  were  found  who  had 
speech  defects,  one  a case  of  stammering  and  the  other  a child  who  had 
never  learned  to  talk.  These  facts,  coupled  with  the  more  specific  ones  re- 
lated in  the  following  section  indicate  that  the  social  life  of  the  people  of 
Ashland  Community  is  at  least  average,  if  not  better. 

Educational  status  and  interest. — The  educational  status  of  the  com- 
munity is  considerably  above  the  average.  Sixteen  of  the  farm  women  and 
twelve  of  the  farm  men  had  gone  to  college.  Seven  additional  men  and 
five  additional  women  had  gone  to  high  school.  In  conjunction  with  this 
exceptional  record  there  appear  those  of  four  men  and  four  ’women  who 
have  no  schooling  whatsoever.  In  three  of  these  cases  these  near  illiterate 
are  husband  and  wife.  Two  of  these  families  were  foreign  born  and  were 
tenants  and  both  of  these  families  have  moved  from  the  community  now. 
In  addition  to  the  four-year  high  school  which  is  now  maintained  at  the 
church,  the  district  schools  are  above  the  average  for  Missouri.  One  es- 
pecially is  an  exceedingly  well-equipped  country  school.  There  was  but 
one  child  of  school  age  in  the  community  who  was  not  in  regular  atten- 
dance. All  except  three  of  these  children  expressed  a desire  to  continue 
their  education  beyond  the  grade  school,  and  without  exception  every  child 
thought  he  or  she  would  be  a farmer.  This  phenomenal  showing  is  due 
somewhat  to  the  educational  status  and  outlook  of  the  older  people,  but 
probably  more  particularly  to  the  presence  in  the  community  of  the  local 
high  school.  Forty-two  of  the  forty-four  fathers  are  in  favor  of  “college 
education”  for  farmers.  Thirty-nine  of  them  favor  a consolidated  rural 
school,  altho  some  of  them  are  doubtful  of  the  success  of  such  a proiect 
until  the  roads  are  improved.  Three  of  the  fathers  have  no  interest  in  and 
one  is  openly  opposed  to  the  idea. 

Religious  affiliations  and  attitude. — There  are  125  persons  living  at  home 
in  the  forty-two  families  for  which  religious  data  were  gathered.  Seventy- 


Ashland  Community  Survey 


9 


nine  of  these  people  held  church  membership  in  some  church.  Thirty  of 
the  125  are  not  yet  ten  years  old.  One  hundred  and  four  of  the  125  attended 
church  regularly.  Sixty-one  of  them  attended  Sunday  School  regularly. 
Five  of  the  adults  said  they  never  attended  church  and  thirty  of  them  said 
they  never  attended  Sunday  School.  The  most  prevalent  reasons  given  for 
non-church  attendance  were,  “Too  busy,”  “Inconvenient,”  "babies  in 
the  home,"  and  “carelessness.”  The  failure  of  the  Sunday  School  to  attract 
as  many  people  as  does  the  preaching  service  of.  the  church  is  probably 
due  to  two  things:  first,  the  fact  that  rural  Sunday  Schools  are  not  schools 
at  all;  second,  that  even  now,  in  as  high  class  a community  as  this  one, 
people  still  believe  that  the  prime  essential  of  a religious  institution  is 
the  preaching  program. 

Thirty  of  the  men  surveyed  said  they  were  in  favor  of  a community 
church.  Two  only  were  unfavorable,  and  the  remainder  were  indifferent. 
Whether  the  people  of  the  community  are  more  religious  than  the  average 
rural  community  would  be  hard  to  estimate.  That  they  take  a livelier  in- 
terest in  church  affairs  than  people  in  most  communities  is  clearly  demon- 
strated by  their  interest  in  the  development  of  the  “community  church” 
and  by  the  magnificent  church  structure  they  have  built. 

Social  organization  and  social  gatherings. — Isolation  is  probably  the 
greatest  handicap  to  a}  satisfactory  social  life  in  most  rural  communities. 
Contacts  with  other  people  are  what  make  life  worth  while.  These  con- 
tacts may.  be  got  in  the  school,  the  church,  community  club,  social  center, 
at  dances,  parties  and  in  various  other  forms  of  community  gathering. 
In  many  cases  these  gatherings  are  in  the  towns,  which  may  mean  one 
of  two  things.  In  the  lodges,  town  and  country  men  and  women  actually 
mingle  together.  In  picture  shows,  on  the  other  hand,  the  participation  of 
the  spectator  is  so  slight  that  it  can  scarcely  be  called  a social  gathering 
in  the  sense  of  social  contacts.  Twenty-one  of  the  men  and  twelve  of  the 
women  belonged  to  some  social  organization  other  than  the  church,  tho 
in  almost  every  case  it  was  admitted  that  attendance  at  the  organization 
meetings  was  irregular.  The  one  case  in  which  attendance  was  univer- 
sally regular  was  a farmer’s  club.  The  club  belonged  strictly  to  the 
neighorhood  and  had  direct  bearing  on  rural  life. 

The  number  and  types  of  social  gatherings  in  which  the  members  of 
the  community  participate  is  indicated  in  the  following  facts  which  speak 
for  themselves.  These  numbers  represent  the  sum  of  the  individual  atten- 
dance at  each  of  these  types  of  gatherings.  Of  course  there  are  many  small 
children  and  a number  of  others  who  do  not  attend  this  or  that  type  of 
gathering  at  all.  For  instance,  there  were  forty  of  the  125  who  attended 
no  dances  during  the  year.  The  total  number  of  individual  attendances 
at  dances  during  the  year  was  883,  at  movies  869,  at  lectures  and  music 
525,  at  parties  other  than  dances  522,  at  church  socials  351,  at  athletic 
games  135,  at  agriculture  fairs  60  and  at  theaters  other  than  movies  3. 
These  facts  probably  represent  the  lively  neighborhood  feeling  of  the  com- 
munity better  than  any  other  one  thing.  These  people,  even  when  we 
include  the  foreign  families,  the  babies  and  the  old  people,  averaged  per 
individual  more  than  twenty-seven  social  gatherings  a year,  besides  the;r 
regular  church,  school,  lodge  and  business  gatherings. 

In  addition  to  gathering  of  these  types,  thirty-seven  of  these  families 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 


make  at  least  weekly  trips  to  town,  usually  on  Saturday  afternoon,  where 
they  mingle  with  each  other  and  with  the  town’s  people.  Twenty-one  of 
the  families  had,  in  the  last  year,  taken  trips  which  carried  them  beyond 
their  own  community  or  even  their  county.  Six  of  them  had  taken  auto 
trips  of  more  than  one  hundred  miles.  Usually  these  trips  are  in  the 
nature  of  a vacation  fishing  trip- 

Home  life. — Home  life  is  made  pleasant  because  of  the  type  of  ’ eople 
who  are  in  the  home,  the  conveniences  in  the  home,  the  amount  of  leisure 
time,  the  reading  material  had  and  used,  home  amusements,  musical  instru- 
ments and  visitors.  The  size  of  the  families  in  the  community  varies  all 
the  way  from  five  childless  couples,  to  one  husband  and  wife  with  nine 
children.  The  average  family  is  husband,  wife  and  three  children,  tho  of 
course  not  all  the  children  are  at  home  all  the  time.  It  is  interesting  to 
know  that  the  average  size  of  the  families  in  which  the  parents  are  more 
than  fifty  years  old  is  6.3  persons,  whereas  it  is  but  4 in  those  families 
where  the  parents  are  all  less  than  fifty  years  old.  There  are  five  childless 
couples,  four  of  them  middle  aged.  There  are  few  really  young  married, 
people  in  the  community.  The  farms  are  held  by  people  who  have  lain 
on  them  for  a number  of  years.  Only  three  of  the  farm  men  and  six  if  he 
farm  women  are  less  than  thirty  years  old.  On  the  other  hand  but  seven 
of  the  men  and  three  of  the  women  are  more  than  60  years  old.  This  means 
that  the  homes  and  the  community  are  made  up  of  middle-aged  people 
and  their  children. 

In  the  forty  homes  from  which  we  could  get  complete  data  concerning 
reading  material  there  is  an  average  of  11  books  and  7 newspapers, 
and  magazine  i per  home.  One  of  ta  .se  homes  had  a library  of  634  books 
and  another  one  500.  Nine  of  them  have  libraries  of  over  250  books  each. 
One  family  takes  16  periodicals  (including  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,, 
weekly  and  monthly  magazines).  Two  families  who  subscribe  for  their 
periodicals  in  common  have  coming  into  their  homes  27  different 
periodicals.  Twenty-nine  of  these  families  made  some  use  of  the  school 
library  or  the  public  library  at  Fayette.  The  most  prevalent  type  of  baok 
found  in  these  homes  other  than  school  books  is  fiction  with  an  average 
of  47.5  per  home.  Next  comes  children’s  books  with  an  average  of  9.1 
followed  in  order  by  history  7,  agriculture  4.3,  religious  4.2,  scientific  3.9,. 
health  2,  and  war  1.  There  is  one  home  which  has  neither  a book  nor  a 
periodical  in  it,  and  one  other  with  nothing  but  school  books.  These  are 
both  homes  of  German  tenants. 

Fifteen  of  these  homes  have  pianos,  twelve  have  some  kind  of  a stringed 
instrument,  six  have  victrolas  and  one  has  an  organ.  Twelve  of  these  homes 
have  two  kinds  of  musical  instruments  in  the  home  and  seven  have  more 
than  two  kinds.  Sixteen  homes  have  no  musical  instruments. 

The  chief  home  amusement  in  the  community  is  cards,  at  least  twenty- 
two  of  the  families  so  stated.  Other  home  amusements  rank  as  follows: 
children’s  games,  croquet,  checkers,  dominoes,  crokinole,  and  tennis.  Seven 
families  asserted  that  they  have  no  home  amusements.  In  practically 
every  case  these  are  the  same  families  which  do  not  attend  the  community- 
gatherings. 

There  are  forty-eight  telephones  in  the  forty-four  homes  so  it  is 
quite  possible  that  one  of  the  rhief  home  amusements  was  completely 


Ashland  Community  Survey 


11 


overlooked  in  answering  the  inquiry.  If  this  be  true  there  are  two  families 
who  do  not  have  even  this  facility.  Six  families  have  two  telephones  each 
in  their  homes. 

Woman’s  work  on  the  farm. — One  of  the  greatest  travesties  on  rural 
life  is  the  fact  that  the  farm  woman  does  not  get  a fair  deal.  As  was  seen 
in  a previous  section,  she  has  little  hired  assistance.  Her  work  is  some- 
times increased  by  the  presence  of  permanently  hired  farm  hands  in  the 
home.  She  cooks  for  her  own  family,  the  threshing  gang,  and  big  Sunday 
gatherings,  besides  doing  her  own  washing,  the  family  mending,  raising  the 
poultry,  caring  for  the  dairy  products  and  often  assisting  with  other  farm 
work.  She  has  the  longest  working  hours  of  any  one  on  the  farm  and  often 
the  least  conveniences.  Every  farm  woman  in  the  community  cares  for 
the  poultry.  Twenty-one  of  them  do  part  of  the  gardening,  eight  of  them 
help  out  with  the  men’s  work  in  rush  season,  and  seven  of  them  do  the  milk- 


Fig.  4. — A comfortable  home  with  well-kept  grounds. 


ing.  One  gives  music  lessons  in  addition  to  her  home  work.  The  average, 
working  day  in  the  rush  season  for  these  women  is  from  5 a.  m.  to  9 p.  m., 
and  the  rush  season  comes  all  too  near  being  all  the  year. 

The  average  value  per  home  for  all  household  equipment  was  (1918) 
estimated  to  be  $694.51.  This  includes  the  furniture  which  is  for  Sunday 
use  only  and  which  rather  than  lessening  the  household  work  increase  it. 
A better  appreciation  of  actual  household  conveniences  can  be  gained  from 
a list  of  labor-saving  devices  found  in  the  homes  of  the  community.  All 
homes  except  two  have  sewing  machines.  Twenty-two  of  them  have  oil 
stoves.  Only  twenty  of  them  have  washing  machines,  five  have  vacuum 
cleaners,  five  have  kitchen  sinks,  two  have  running  water  in  the  house.  None 
of  them  has  any  power  machinery,  tho  it  should  be  remembered  there  are 
six  gas  engines  and  three  windmills  on  these  farms.  The  weakest  spot 
in  Ashland  Community  is  household  equipment  or  modern  labor-saving 
devices  for  farm  women.  If  the  writer  were  to  make  but  one  single  re- 
commendation for  the  homes  in  Ashland  Community,  which  is  already  con- 
siderably above  the  average  in  social  efficiency,  it  would  be  better  houses 
and  more  labor-saving  devices  for  the  farm  women. 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 


SANITARY  CONDITIONS. 

The  one  phase  of  farm  improvement  which  has  been  most  neglected 
is  the  installation  of  modern  sanitary  equipment  in  the  home.  It  is  true 
that  the  production  must  first  be  taken  care  of  and  this  is  done  by  securing 
proper  machinery,  by  improving  soil  conditions,  by  proper  seed  selection, 
by  proper  selection  and  breeding  of  stock,  and  providing  suitable  shelter 
for  crops  and  animals  produced. 

When  the  farm  is  on  a paying  basis,  however,  the  owner  cannot  afford 
to  be  without  those  things  in  the  home  which  make  farm  life  attractive 
and  satisfying.  In  fact,  there  are  two  essential  improvements  for  the  home, 
a pure  water  supply  and  sanitary  disposal  of  human  waste,  which  must  be 
provided  to  make  possible  healthful  conditions  and  successful  farming 


Fig.  5. — Conditions  very  unsanitary  at  this  back  door. 


operations.  Too  many  farmers  have  retired  to  the  city  to  be  able  to  enjoy 
certain  advantages  that  might  be  brought  to  the  farm. 

The  farmstead.— The  location  of  a farmstead  has  much  to  do  toward 
making  possible  sanitary  conditions.  While  every  farm  house  cannot  be 
located  on  sloping  land  this  should  be  kept  in  mind.  The  general  topography 
in  which  this  survey  was  made  being  rolling,  the  farmsteads  with  only  a few 
exceptions  were  located  on  high  land  with  good  surface  drainage.  Poorly 
drained  grounds  are  more  liable  to  be  unsanitary  than  those  which  are 
well  drained.  The  unsanitary  condition  found  is  a result  of  throwing  waste 
material  from  the  kitchen  into  the  yard,  chickens  allowed  the  run  of  the 
place,  trash  and  rubbish  allowed  to  collect,  general  neglect  and  careless- 
ness. Three  yards  are  in  an  excellent  condition,  six  are  very  good,  twenty- 
seven  good,  eleven  poor,  and  three  very  poor.  Only  a little  systematic 
attention  is  necessary  to  keep  yards  clean  and  attractive. 


Ashland  Community  Survey 


13 


Home  location. — In  locating  a house  an  east  or  south  front  is  usually 
desired.  It-  is  interesting  to  find  that  twenty-one  houses  face  south,  thirteen 
east,  one  southeast,  and  one  souhwest.  Thirty-six  out  of  a possible  fifty 
face  south,  east,  or  in  a southward  direction.  A south  or  southeast  slope 
is  muct  more  desirable  for  a farmstead  site  thruout  the  middle  west  because 
it  drys  more  quickly  and  is  warmer  in  winter. 

House. — The  size  of  house  varies  from  a two-room  shack,  for  a negro 
hired  man,  to  a ten-room  house.  There  is  one  two-room,  one  three-room, 
four  four-room,  four  five-room,  seventeen  six-room,  eleven  seven-room, 
five  eight-room,  two  nine-room  and  five  ten-room  houses. 

Of  the  renters,  one  lives  in  a four-room,  five  in  a six-room,  and  one  in 
a seven-room  house.  Thirty-four  out  of  forty  owners  live  in  houses  of 
six  rooms  or  more.  There  is  only  one  modern  house  in  the  group.  There 
are  several  old-fashioned  brick  houses,  one  built  as  early  as  1826,  and 
a number  of  houses  framed  with  hewn  timbers.  These  old  houses  are 
unhandy  and  make  necessary  many  steps  for  the  tired  house-wife.  An 
explanation  often  given  for  not  having  installed  modem  sanitary  equipment 
in  the  home  is  because  the  new  house  will  soon  be  built,  which  is  often 
a long  wait. 

House  equipment. — Only  two  houses  were  equipped  with  complete 
plumbing  systems.  One  of  these  had  not  been  used  for  several  months  due 
to  the  pipes  freezing  during  cold  weather.  At  each  of  these  places  the 
sewage  is  discharged  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  some  distance  from  the 
house  in  an  orchard.  This  is  a dangerous  practice  and  is  not  recommended. 
To  make  conditions  sanitary,  a septic  tank  at  each  place  should  be  provided. 
A plan  for  such  tank  may  be  secured  from  the  Agriculture  Engineering 
Department,  University  of  Missouri. 

At  three  places  a pump  and  sink  are  provided  in  the  kitchen  with  a 
drain  to  take  care  of  the  kitchen  waste  water.  This  is  the  simplest  method  of 
bringing  water  into  the  kitchen  with  little  expense.  The  improvement 
in  the  farm  house  most  desired  by  the  house-wife  is  water  piped  where 
it  is  needed.  There  is  no  farmer  who  can  afford  not  to  install  at  least  a 
kitchen  sink  and  pump.  At  one  farm  the  water  pressure  from  a storage 
tank  is  piped  to  the  watering  troughs  for  live  stock,  but  is  not  piped  into 
the  house.  Think  of  the  labor  of  carrying  in  water  each  day  and  the  ex- 
posure during  the  cold  weather  that  would  be  eliminated  by  piping  the 
water  where  it  is  needed. 

Lighting  and  heating  systems. — Two  houses  are  equipped  with  acety- 
lene lights,  two  with  blau  gas,  and  the  remaining  forty-six  use  ordinary 
kerosene  lamps.  Two  houses  are  provided  with  hot-air  furnaces  and  the 
remaining  forty-eight  use  stoves,  and  in  a few  cases  the  stoves  are  supple- 
mented with  a fire  place. 

It  is  hardly  believable  that  a group  of  successful  farmers  who  have 
bought  all  kinds  of  machinery  to  make  the  work  of  production  easy  and 
have  bought  automobiles  for  pleasure  and  profits  have  not  equipped  their 
homes  with  modern  equipment  to  make  the  home  a more  convenient  work 
shop  and  a better  place  in  which  to  live. 

Purity  of  water  supply. — It  is  of  interest  to  find  that  the  water  for 
drinking  purposes  is  from  cisterns,  with  two  exceptions,  one  a shallow  well 
and  the  other  a spring.  With  the  cistern  as  a source  of  supply  its  purity 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 


will  depend  on  the  care  in  collecting  the  water  into  the  cistern  and  the  pro- 
tection against  the  entrance  of  any  impurities  after  the  water  i£  stored. 

Samples  of  each  of  the  supplies  were  taken  for  chemical  and  bacterial 
analyses.  In  the  bacterial  analysis  a test  was  made  to  determine  the  pre- 
sence of  B,  Coli,  a bacteria  that  is  commonly  found  in  the  excreta  of  warm- 
blooded animals.  The  results  show  the  presence  of  this  bacteria  in  forty- 
two  samples,  three  show  questionable  results  and  six  a negative  test.  Five 
additional  samples  were  taken  where  there  were  more  than  one  source  of 
supply,  and  all  showed  contamination  with  B.  Coli.  The  results  of  chemical 
analysis  also  indicate  contamination.  The  presence  of  free  ammonia  and 
nitrogen  as  nitrites  is  usually  considered  indicative  of  recent  contamination 
of  animal  origin.  The  presence  of  measurable  quantities  of  nitrogen  as 


Fig.  6. — Cistern  with  metal  top.  Filter 
shown  on  wall  helps  but  is  too  small. 


Fig.  7.  — Filter  poorly  protected  at  top 
and  not  cleaned  out  regularly. 


nitrites  is  considered  sufficient  ground  for  condemning  a water  supply.  All 
of  the  samples,  analyzed  showed  some  free  ammonia,  and  in  all  samples 
except  three  was  found  nitrogen  as  nitrites.  By  studying  both  the  chemical 
and  bacterial  analysis  it  is  found  that  every  sample  is  more  or  less  con- 
taminated. The  presence  of  B.  Coli  as  shown  by  the  bacterial  analysis  indi- 
cates a clear  case  of  some  form  of  sewage  contamination. 

Before  a source  of  water  can  actually  be  condemned  the  local  con- 
dition should  be  carefully  studied  to  determine  the  actual  source  of  the  pol- 
lution. The  fact  that  practically  all  of  the  samples  were  taken  from  cisterns, 
many  of  which  are  protected  by  good  concrete  tops,  the  walls  being  imper- 
vious to  the  flow  of  seepage  impurities,  must  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
impurities  went  in  with  the  supply  when  being  collected.  Water  should  not 
be  caught  until  the  roof  is  thoroly  cleaned.  A filter  of  some  sort  is  pro- 


Ashland  Community  Survey 


15 


vided  at  only  a few  places.  Some  of  these  are  without  filtering  material 
of  any  kind,  and  all  others  had  not  been  cleaned  out  since  they  were  in- 
stalled. In  every  case  the  so-called  filter  is  not  serving  its  purpose  as  such. 
A filter  such  as  is  recommended  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
Bulletin  941  is  recommended,  and  it  goes  without  saying  that  the  top  and 
walls  of  the  cistern  should  be  absolutely  tight. 

Several  of  the  sup- 
plies have  a seepage 
vein  of  water  flow- 
ing in,  making  them 
virtually  the  same  as 
a shallow  well  sup- 
ply. Cracks  in  the 
curb  in  a few  in- 
stances allowed  sur- 
face water  to  flow 
in  at  the  top,  carry- 
ing with  it  contam- 
ination. The  loca- 
tion and  natural 
drainage  eliminates 
danger  of  contami- 
nation in  most  cases 
from  this  source.  Twenty-eight  of  the  supplies  are  covered  with  board 
tops,  none  of  which  are  tight  enough  to  exclude  all  impurities;  nine  have 
concrete  tops;  seven  cast  iron,  and  five  are  of  sand  rock. 


Fig.  8. — Filter  without  filtering  material  and  with  trash  in  pipe. 


Fig.  9. — A privy  that  offers  neither  privacy  nor 
protection. 


Disposal  of  human  waste. 

— Only  two  homes  were 
equipped  with  sanitary  toilet 
with  water  carriage,  the  dis- 
charge being  carried  out  in 
a drain  to  the  surface.  At 
one  farm  the  privy  was  pro- 
vided with  a box  which  was 
cleaned  and  disinfected  at 
regular  intervals;  at  the  re- 
maining forty-seven  farms, 
ordinary,  unsanitary,  surface 
privies  were  in  use.  They 
are  open  and  have  no  pro- 
tection from  the  flies.  They 
are  unventilated  and  dis- 
agreeable and  some  of  them 
give  neither  protection  nor 
privacy.  A great  improve- 
ment could  easily  be  made  at 
slight  expense  by  construct- 
ing a concrete  vault  and  pro- 
viding ventilation. 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 


CONCLUSIONS  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Ashland  Community  is  much  above  the  average  Missouri  rural  com- 
munity in  economic  prosperity  and  social  life. 

Community  spirit  is  represented  by  the  church  building  which  these 
people  have  recently  erected  and  by  the  great  number  of  social  gatherings 
which  they  attend  together. 

The  community  is  prospereous  as  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  practical- 
ly all  the  farmers  own  their  own  homes  and  by  the  methods  of  conducting 
their  business  transactions. 

The  community  is  exceptional  in  its  educational  status  and  educational 
equipment,  there  being  a great  many  college  men  and  women  in  the  com- 
munity, excellent  grade  schools,  a four-year  high  school  and  excellent  read- 
ing materials  in  practically  all  the  homes. 

The  farms  of  the  community  are  well  equipped  for  production  and  the 
system  of  farming  is  one  that  is  calculated  to  foster  both  soil  conservation 
and  greater  production  in  the  future. 

The  greatest  two  weaknesses  in  the  community  ate  lack  of  modern 
homes  equipped  with  labor-saving  devices  for  the  farm  women,  and  lack  of 
proper  sanitary  conditions  about  the  houses.  There  are  only  two  homes  with 
plumbing  systems,  two  with  hot-air  furnaces  and  four  with  lights  other 
than  kerosene.  The  impure  condition  of  the  wrater  for  drinking  purposes 
and  the  lack  of  attention  to  proper  methods  of  disposal  of  human  wastes 
indicate  the  lack  of  appreciation  of  factors  that  greatly  affect  life  on  the 
farm. 

The  writers  believe  that  Ashland  Community  is  unique  in  some  of  its 
points  of  strength.  Its  equipment  for  educational  and  religious  life  and 
its  habits  of  good  fellowship  are  worthy  examples.  They  believe,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  weaknesses  of  home  equipment  and  home  sanitation  are 
common  to  many  other  farming  communities.  They  should  like  therefore 
to  recommend  to  the  farmers  in  this  and  other  rural  communities  that  they 
pay  more  attention  to  the  home  and  the  home  equipment:  that  they  give 
as  much  attention  to  equipping  the  house  wih  labor-saving  devices  as  to 
equipping  the  farm  for  production;  that  they  make  conditions  sanitary  and 
provide  an  adequate  supply  of  pure  water;  that  the  home  be  made  for  the 
family  what  the  community  center  is  for  the  community — the  best  possible. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  174 


HOG  CHOLERA  AND  IM- 
MATURE CORN 


Fig.  1. — Pig  affected  with  hog  cholera 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
SEPTEMBER,  1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

A.  J.  BLANTON  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kansas  City 

JOHN  H.  BRADLEY, 

Kennett 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

September,  1920 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

R.  M.  Smith,  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedemann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  SiEveking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  B.  Culbertson,  Jr.,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  W.  Manning,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

G.  W.  York,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B.  S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

F.  B.  MumFord,  M.  S. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A. 

A.  R.  SchEnken,  B.  S. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Ray  E.  Miller,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Bernard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E-  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Sam  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson.  A.  M. 

B.  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

FORESTRY 
Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

horticulture 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Ph.  D. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B.  S. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 

H.  F.  Majors,  B.  S.,  Landscape  Gardener 

R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  Secretary 

S.  B.  ShirkEy,  Asst,  to  Dean 

O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 

J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 

Miss  Salome  Comstock,1  Seed  Testing 
Laboratory 


3In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 

J.  W.  Conn  away,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

INTRODUCTION 

The  purpose  of  this  bulletin  is  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  the  swine 
feeders  a fact  generally  recognized  by  veterinarians  that  losses  from  dis- 
ease in  the  feed  lot  is  due  primarily  to  hog  cholera;  and  that  the  popular 
notion  that  immature  corn  may  originate  this  disease  is  a fallacy. 

It  is  also  sought  to  show  what  is  properly  the  true  relation  of  the 
secondary  infections  to  hog  cholera,  that  these  secondary  bacterial  invaders 
are  relatively  of  minor  importance  as  disease-producing  factors,  and  that 
the  effective  control  of  hog  cholera  will  render  them  practically  harmless. 

The  sources  of  cholera  infection  to  feeding  hogs  are  stated  as  well  as 
the  precautions  to  be  observed  when  recently  vaccinated  hogs  are  put  on 
the  new  corn  ration.  An  attempt  is  also  made  to  give  the  swine  raiser  a 
clearer  idea  of  how  immunity  against  hog  cholera  is  acquired,  and  to  show 
that  a relapse  or  “break”  from  “vaccination  cholera”  is  liable  to  occur  from 
neglect  on  his  part  and  especially  that  attempts  to  hasten  the  fattening 
process  by  excessive  feeding  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period  is  in- 
judicious. 

A matter  of  no  less  importance  is  presented  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
bulletin  under  the  head  of  “Diagnostic  Points,”  since  the  diagnosis  of  hog 
cholera  has  been  confusing  to  many  swine  raisers  who  are  unable  to  obtain 
the  services  of  a veterinarian.  The  illustrations  and  descriptions  of  the 
cholera  lesions,  and  of  the  complications  arising  from  secondary  bacterial 
invaders,  will  aid  materially  in  making  a correct  diagnosis  of  cholera  cases, 
and  will  lead  to  a more  prompt  and  efficient  treatment  of  cholera  infected 
herds. 

SOURCES  OF  INFECTION 

Past  experience  has  shown  that,  with  the  increased  traffic  in  hogs  for 
feeding  purposes,  during  the  fall  feeding  season  hog  cholera  outbreaks  are 
liable  to  occur.  These  outbreaks  are  often  ascribed  to  the  feeding  of  new  corn ; 
but  hog  cholera  nor  any  other  specific  infectious  disease  is  caused  by  new  corn. 
The  virus  or  germs  of  hog  cholera  are  always  necessary  to  cause  an  outbreak 
of  that  disease.  The  injudicious  feeding  of  new  corn  is,  however,  a factor 
which  may  increase  the  losses  from  cholera  when  the  germs  of  that  disease 
are  present. 

Most  of  the  herds  that  become  sick  after  feeding  for  awhile  on  new  corn 
are  already  infected  with  the  disease  germs  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  feed- 
ing period,  or  become  infected  from  some  other  source  than  the  corn  aftgr 
they  are  put  on  to  this  feed.  Many  of  the  feeding  hogs  are  shipped  in  from 
some  other  locality  and  are  often  mixed  bunches,  picked  up  from  various 
farms,  some  of  which  are  liable  to  harbor  cholera  infection.  Some  of  these 
feeding  herds  pass  thru  stock  yards  which  are  permanently  infected  with 
cholera  germs;  or  they  may  be  shipped  in  infected  cars.  Hogs  thus  exposed 
if  not  immune  will  contract  the  disease,  and  a large  per  cent  will  die  after  they 
arrive  at  the  feeding  farms.  Moreover,  “breaks”  from  cholera  will  occasional- 
ly occur  in  car-lot  shipments  which  have  been  given  the  “double  treatment”  for 
permanent  immunity,  if  the  feeder  does  not  exercise  proper  care  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  feeding  period.  The  turning  of  a car-lot  of  feeding  hogs  direct- 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


ly  into  the  corn  fields  on  arrival  from  the  stock  yards  is  attended  with  con- 
siderable risk,  because  the  fatigue  and  the  disturbance  of  the  circulatory  and 
digestive  functions  incident  to  vaccination  and  the  stress  of  handling  and  ship- 
ping lower  the  vitality  and  powers  of  resistance  of  the  hogs.  Under  these 
conditions  it  is  injudicious  to  permit  the  hungry  hogs  to  overload  the  stomach; 
and  especially  with  new,  immature  corn,  which  is  more  fermentable  than  fully 
ripened  and  well-cured  grain,  and  more  liable  to  cause  digestive  disturbances 
and  diarrhea.  This  disturbance  of  the  digestive  functions  from  dietetic  errors 
will  still  further  increase  the  susceptibility  of  the  herd  to  hog  cholera,  and  its 
complications,  even  tho  new  or  soft  corn  is  not  a direct  cause  of  cholera. 
The  importance,  therefore,  of  having  the  “feeder”  hogs  well  immunized  against 
hog  cholera  this  fall  before  feeding  the  new  corn  crop  can  scarcely  be  over- 
emphasized, because  of  the  probability  that  a considerable  amount  of  the  crop, 
and  especially  the  last  plantings,  will  not  be  properly  matured  and  hardened 
before  the  feeding  season  begins.  Besides,  a considerable  portion  of  the  soft 
corn  must  be  utilized  by  feeding  it  to  hogs. 

There  is  an  impression  among  some  feeders  that  “double  treated”  hogs 
can  be  put  with  safety  on  full  feed  almost  immediately  after  vaccination ; and 
it  is  true  that  in  many  cases  no  bad  results  have  occurred,  but  the  risks  are  too 
great  to  recommend  such  a practice.  A gain  in  the  total  time  of  feeding,  in 
the  final  weight,  cost  of  fattening,  and  ultimate  profits,  can  be  made  by  pro- 
ceeding slowly  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period.  This  will  usually  pre- 
vent the  setbacks  due  to  “cholera  breaks,”  and  associated  complications  such 
as  pneumonia  and  necrotic  enteritis  which  sometimes  occur  when  hogs  are  put 
on  new  corn. 

DURABLE  IMMUNITY  ACQUIRED  SLOWLY 

A longer  period  is  required  to  develop  a permanent  immunity  in  vaccinated 
hogs  than  is  commonly  supposed.  The  most  potent  anti-hog-cholera  serum  that 
can  be  made  cannot  of  itself  confer  a permanent  immunity.  Serum  alone 
confers  an  immunity  of  a passive  or  temporary  character,  the  duration  being 
variable.  The  use  of  the  “serum  alone”  is,  therefore,  applicable  only  to  short 
feeding  periods  unless  the  herd  is  re-vaccinated  or  a thoro  disinfection  of  the 
premises  is  made.  When,  therefore,  a herd  is  in  constant  danger  of  exposure 
to  hog  cholera  infection,  it  is  preferable  to  confer  a permanent  immunity;  but 
this  cannot  be  secured  except  by  subjecting  the  animal  to  the  disease-producing 
activities  of  the  virus.  It  is  well  known  that  the  hog  which  recovers  from  a 
natural  attack  of  hog  cholera  becomes,  as  a rule,  permanently  immune.  Like- 
wise, that  the  “double  treated”  or  “serum-virus”  inoculated  hog  gains  a per- 
manent immunity,  if  the  virus  is  a living  and  vigorously  active  virus.  The 
virus,  however,  in  the  vaccinated  hog  as  well  as  in  a natural  attack  of  cholera 
acts  in  a harmful  way  on  the  cells  of  the  body;  and  the  cells,  for  self-protec- 
tion, must  react  to  the  attacks  of  the  virus  and  produce  specific  “anti-bodies,” 
or  protective  substances,  to  counteract  the  harmful  action  of  the  virus.  A 
veritable  combat  ensues  when  hog  cholera  infection  enters  the  system  of  a hog, 
and  this  combat  terminates  either  in  the  death  of  the  hog  or  in  an  immunity 
more  or  less  permanent.  The  vaccinated  hog,  however,  has  this  advantage 
over  the  hog  which  has  become  infected  with  virus  from  natural  exposure — 
a liberal  dose  of  potent  anti-hog-cholera  serum  is  injected  simultaneously  with 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 


5 


the  virus,  and.  this  constitutes  a supply  of  “reserve  ammunition”  which  the 
vaccinated  hog  draws  upon  for  protection  while  it  is  strengthening  its  cellular 
defenses  and  elaborating  its  own  protective  serum.  If,  however,  the  vacci- 
nated herd  is  not  properly  handled  and  properly  fed,  the  virus  may  overcome 
the  protective  guards  in  spite  of  the  reserve  ammunition  with  which  the  body 
was  reinforced;  and  some  of  the  hogs  may  succumb  to  acute  cholera  of  the 
septicemic  type;  or  may  linger  along,  with  a chronic  type  of  the  disease,  and 
finally  die,  from  the  pneumonic  complications  or  from  chronic  inflammation 
of  the  intestines. 

ACTIVITY  OF  VIRUS  IN  VACCINATED  SWINE 

Experiments  which  have  been  made  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  show  that  the  virus  remains  alive  and  virulent  in  the  “double 
treated”  hogs  for  a considerable  time  after  vaccination,  even  in  vaccinated  hogs 
which  are  given  good  care  and  do  not  show  outwardly  any  symptoms  of  ill- 
ness. It  was  found  that  (for  a period  of  more  than  a week)  blood  which  was 
drawn  daily  from  the  tails  of  “double  treated”  hogs  was  almost  as  virulent 
as  blood  drawn  from  a pig  showing  well-marked  symptoms  of  cholera;  more- 
over, the  blood  drawn  from  some  of  the  double-treated  hogs  even  as  long  as 
twenty-three  days  after  vaccination  was  still  sufficiently  virulent  to  cause  death 
when  inoculated  into  a healthy  susceptible  pig. 

It  is  thus  shown  that  the  process  of  acquiring  immunity  and  overcoming 
the . disease  germs  in  the  body  is  evidently  a slow  process,  and  proper  care 
should  be  given  the  vaccinated  herd  for  three  weeks  or  more  to  avoid  the  de- 
velopment of  acute  or  chronic  cases  of  cholera  from  the  vaccination.  Rough 
handling  during  this  period,  overfeeding  after  a fatiguing  railroad  haul  or  a 
long  drive,  may  so  lower  the  resistance  of  some  of  the  animals  as  to  permit 
the  cholera  virus  with  which  they  have  been  vaccinated  to  gain  the  upper 
hand  and  cause  death  from  a true  attack  of  cholera. 

“CHOLERA  BREAKS”  AFTER  VACCINATION 

A genuine  relapse  from  cholera  has  occurred  more  frequently  than  has 
been  suspected  in  car-lots  of  swine  which  have  been  treated  by  the  serum-virus 
method,  and  held  for  a period  of  21  days  or  less  before  shipment.  Other 
causes  than  cholera  have  often  been  assigned  for  these  cholera  breaks  in  vac- 
cinated hogs,  because  of  the  common  impression  that  hogs  are  solidly  im- 
mune within  a short  period  after  administration  of  the  serum-virus  treatment. 

To  illustrate  the  point  that  relapses  may  occur  in  swine  after  release  from 
quarantine  of  two  or  three  weeks  following  vaccination  (unless  handled  in  a 
proper  manner),  one  case  which  was  investigated  quite  thoroly  will  be  men- 
tioned. This  herd  was  purchased  as  an  immune  herd,  and  the  buyer  was  par- 
ticular not  to  accept  the  animals  until  they  had  passed  the  full  21  days  in 
quarantine.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  vaccination  was  done  in 
a proper  manner  and  with  serum  of  full  potency,  because  the  work  was  done 
under  federal  supervision.  But  unfortunately  the  hogs  were  loaded  out  on  a 
very  warm  day,  and  the  car  was  a little  crowded ; moreover,  the  train  was 
delayed  in  reaching  its  destination,  and  the  hogs  were  on  the  car  nearly  24 
hours  before  unloading.  They  were  then  driven  several  miles  to  the  farm  of 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


the  owner.  Some  of  the  hogs  showed  considerable  fatigue  during  and  after 
the  drive.  The  hogs  were  put  at  once  onto  a green  corn  ration.  Within  a 
week  some  of  the  hogs  showed  well-marked  signs  of  illness,  and  in  ten  days 
several  had  died.  An  investigation  of  the  case  showed  the  ailment  to  be  hog 
cholera.  The  owner  could  scarcely  believe  that  the  hogs  were  affected  with  this 
disease,  as  he  had  purchased  what  he  believed  to  be  a well  immunized  carload. 
However,  the  symptoms,  the  post  mortem  examination,  and  the  successful  pro- 
duction of  cholera  in  other  hogs  by  inoculation  and  feeding  experiments  with 
materials  from  this  herd,  as  well  as  by  exposure  experiments,  proved  the  out- 
break to  be  hog  cholera.  It  thus  appears  that  the  unfavorable  conditions  men- 
tioned combined  to  lower  the  resistance  of  the  swine ; and  the  cholera  germs, 
which  were  still  alive  and  virulent,  multiplied  actively  in  the  less  vigorous  and 
less  resistant  animals,  overcoming  the  protective  power  of  the  serum  which 
had  been  injected  and  the  protective  “anti-bodies”  which  had  been  developed 
by  the  vaccination. 

If  the  fact  is  kept  in  mind  that  such  relapses  or  “breaks”  following  vac- 
cination can  and  do  occur  in  herds  subjected  to  unfavorable  conditions,  there 
will  be  less  tendency  to  blame  veterinarians  for  poor  results  in  vaccinating,  or 
to  blame  the  serum  for  lack  of  potency. 

PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST  CHOLERA  BREAKS 

Good  serum  and  active  virus  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  properly  adminis- 
tered, are  essential  to  conferring  an  active  or  permanent  immunity;  but  disas- 
trous results  may  occur  if  the  feeders  do  not  give  proper  after-care  to  the 
vaccinated  feeding  herds,  for  hog  cholera  virus  has  the  power  under  certain 
conditions  to  cause  a fatal  illness,  as  well  as  the  power  under  more  favorable 
conditions  to  stimulate  the  development  of  a permanent  immunity.  Vaccinated 
herds  should,  therefore,  be  handled  and  fed  during  the  immunizing  period 
with  greater  care  than  is  necessary  at  other  times.  And,  if  circumstances 
should  require  the  feeding  of  new  corn  before  the  vaccinated  hogs  have  ac- 
quired a solid  immunity,  a smaller  quantity  of  this  food  should  be  given  than 
ordinarily  until  the  hogs  are  well  accustomed  to  the  change.  A larger  share 
of  old  corn  if  available  should  at  first  be  given,  and  the  new  corn  gradually 
increased  in  amount.  An  exclusive  ration  of  corn,  either  old  or  new,  is  not 
che  most  nutritious  diet  nor  usually  the  most  economical  one.  It  should  be 
supplemented  by  a partial  ration  of  muscle-building  or  protein-bearing  foods 
and  those  containing  bone-making  elements  and  the  vitamines.  Such  foodstuffs 
as  bran,  shipstuff,  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal,  tankage,  bonemeal,  crushed  oats 
and  wheat  screenings  all  supply  important  body  constituents  and  all  are  avail- 
able upon  the  markets.  At  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period,  if  the  new 
corn  crop  is  to  be  hogged  down,  a feed  of  old  corn  and  supplements  as  a 
morning  ration  before  turning  into  the  fields  is  suggested  as  a method  of 
preventing  digestive  disturbances  from  an  overfeed  of  the  more  fermentable 
new  corn.  Access  for  a part  of  the  day  to  a clover,  alfalfa  or  bluegrass  pas- 
ture is  advised,  if  such  pastures  are  available. 

The  foregoing  precautions  will  prevent  most  of  the  breaks  or  relapses  that 
occur  within  two,  three  or  four  weeks  following  vaccination.  Such  precau- 
tions perhaps  would  be  less  needful  if  the  owner  and  the  veterinarian  were 
certain  that  all  the  hogs  in  the  herd  were  in  a thrifty,  vigorous  condition  at 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 


/ 


time  of  vaccination;  and  especially  if  a liberal  dose  of  serum  is  administered. 
But  it  is  not  always  easy  to  judge  from  outward  appearances  the  actual  condi- 
tion of  health  and  powers  of  resistance  of  a hundred  or  more  hogs  at  the 
time  of  vaccination.  In  some  instances  a considerable  number  of  the  hogs  may 
be  badly  infested  with  worms  but  this  fact  may  not  be  manifest  nor  discovered 
until  a pig  or  two  has  died  from  vaccination  cholera,  and  the  post-mortem  ex- 
amination has  revealed  the  conditions. 

The  rule  of  experienced  veterinarians  is  to  increase  the  dose  of  serum 
when  vaccinating  hogs  which  from  any  cause  are  unthrifty;  and  this  is  a 
good  rule.  But  serum  is  not  a vermifuge;  moreover,  the  dose  which  is  given 
may  fail  to  hold  the  cholera  virus  in  check  in  the  hog  that  is  badly  infested 
with  worms.  But  whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  the  development  of  active 
symptoms  of  cholera  in  vaccinated  hogs,  a prompt  revaccination  of  the  herd 
to  reinforce  the  natural  defenses  against  the  cholera  virus  is  advisable,  while 
applying  proper  measures  to  eliminate  the  worms  or  other  unfavorable  condi- 
tions. 

WHAT  TO  DO  WHEN  VACCINATION  BREAKS  OCCUR 

The  prudent  course  for  the  swine  feeders  to  pursue  when  several  hogs  of 
the  feeding  herd  become  sick  within  the  first  two  to  four  weeks  following  vac- 
cination is  to  suspect  a “break”  from  cholera,  and  to  call  the  veterinarian  who 
did  the  vaccinating  and  have  him  make  a thoro  examination  of  the  sick  ani- 
mals, study  the  symptoms,  take  temperatures,  look  into  the  conditions  of  care 
and  feeding,  and  make  a careful  post-mortem  examination  of  any  hogs  that- 
may  die.  If  one  or  more  hogs  appear  to  be  fatally  ill  these  should  be  killed 
and  the  viscera  examined.  If  the  disease  conditions  which  are  found  are  like 
those  occurring  in  cases  of  hog  cholera  in  untreated  herds,  the  herd  should  be 
revaccinated.  The  tendency  to  delay  revaccination  unduly  and  to  seek  for  some 
other  disease  than  hog  cholera  to  account  for*  the  illness,  simply  because  the 
herd  was  vaccinated  a few  weeks  previously,  is  liable  to  result  in  considerable 
loss  which  might  be  avoided  by  prompt  revaccination. 

The  prompt  correction  of  errors  in  feeding  and  in  the  general  care  of  the 
herd  are  essential,  and  may  in  some  cases  be  sufficient  to  restore  the  herd  to 
a healthy  condition.  Restriction  of  the  ration  is  always  good  treatment  no 
matter  what  the  disease,  and  this  is  particularly  true  of  hog  cholera,  whether 
from  natural  infection  or  following  vaccination. 

In  these  cases  of  cholera  breaks  after  vaccination  the  mistake  has  fre- 
quently been  made  of  vaccinating  against  the  secondary  infections , which  are 
sometimes  complications  of  cholera,  instead  of  revaccinating  against  cholera 
itself.  The  great  anchor  of  safety  for  the  swine  industry  so  far  as  vaccina- 
tion against  epizootic  swine  disease  is  concerned  is  the  anti-hog-cholera  serum. 
The  opinion  of  many  veterinarians  is  that  the  “bacterins”  or  other  vaccines 
used  in  swine  practice  are  of  questionable  value.  The  fact  cannot  be  im- 
pressed upon  the  mind  of  the  swine  raisers  too  strongly  that  hog  cholera,  so 
far  as  has  yet  been  demonstrated,  is  the  only  epizootic  disease  of  swine  in  this 
country  which  is  capable  of  spreading  from  herd  to  herd  and  causing  large 
losses;  and  if  greater  effort  were  given  by  the  swine  raisers  and  veterinarians 
to  the  control  and  eradication  of  this  disease,  and  to  the  application  of  proper 
sanitary  measures  in  the  handling  of  the  swine  herds,  there  would  be  little 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


need  to  bother  about  the  minor  secondary  infections  which  are  associated  with 
that  disease,  as  these  would  give  but  little  trouble. 

SECONDARY  INFECTIONS— “HEMORRHAGIC 
SEPTICEMIA,”  ETC. 

This  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  secondary  infections  which  com- 
plicate the  hog-cholera  problem.  Much  has  been  heard  during  the  past  few 
years  concerning  “swine  plague”  or  “hemorrhagic  septicemia”  of  swine,  as  it 
is  now  known.  The  terms  “mixed  infection”  and  “necrotic  enteritis”  have 
also  become  familiar  to  many  swine  raisers;  and  even  “hog  flu”  is  a coinage 
of  the  last  two  years,  which  has  served  no  good  purpose  so  far  as  the  needs  of 
the  swine  raisers  are  concerned. 

The  symptoms  and  the  “lesions”  or  disease  conditions  occurring  in  the 
various  organs  of  the  sick  hog,  which  have  given  rise  to  the  foregoing  names, 
are  merely  symptoms  and  conditions  which  are  produced  by  hog  cholera  and 
by  associated  secondary  bacteria,  which  under  ordinary  conditions  are  quite 
harmless.  The  so-called  swine-plague  or  hemorrhagic-septicemia  microbe,  for 
instance,  is  a common  hog-yard  germ.  It  occurs  in  the  dust  and  the  soil  of  the 
feeding  pens  and  does  no  harm  to  a healthy,  vigorous  hog.  These  germs  are 
taken  into  the  stomach  daily  and  traverse  the  digestive  tract  without  harm 
to  the  hogs.  They  are  drawn  into  the  nostrils  in  breathing,  and  can  be  found 
in  the  upper  air  passages  of  healthy  swine,  where  they  do  not  cause  any  serious 
inflammation,  and  are  then  carried  out  again  with  the  mucous  secretions.  The 
presence  of  such  bacteria  on  the  healthy  mucous  membrane  has  been  demon- 
strated by  careful  laboratory  workers ; and  it  has  been  shown  that  these  bac- 
teria conform  in  shape,  size  and  all  the  laboratory  tests  for  identification, 
with  the  so-called  hemorrhagic  septicemia  germs  which  are  sometimes  found 
in  the  diseased  tissues  of  swine.  And  the  conviction  has  come  to  a number 
of  the  veterinary  investigators  that  this  microbe  is  merely  a secondary  or  ac- 
cidental invader  of  the  diseased  organs  and  is  not  the  primary  causative  agent 
of  any  epizootic  swine  disease.  Also,  that  if  it  does  produce  harmful  results 
they  occur  as  a rule  only  in  association  with,  or  secondary  to,  some  other  and 
more  virulent  micro-organism  such  as  the  highly  virulent  infection  of  hog 
cholera. 

SANITATION  AND  GOOD  CARE  PREVENT  SECONDARY 
INFECTIONS 

It  is  quite  possible  that  these  usually  harmless  bacteria  may  invade  the 
blood  and  cause  septicemic  troubles  and  pneumonia  in  hogs  which  are  exposed 
to  extremely  insanitary  conditions.  Hogs  which  are  not  properly  protected 
from  the  winter  storms  but  are  allowed  to  bed  around  straw  stacks  and  upon 
manure  piles,  piling  in  heaps,  are  especially  liable  to  contract  “colds”  and  pneu- 
monia; and  in  swine  which  are  ill  from  such  conditions  it  will  not  be  difficult 
to  find  the  so-called  “hemorrhagic  septicemia”  bacterium  and  other  bacteria  in 
the  diseased  tissues.  The  lowering  of  the  animal’s  vitality  and  cell  resistance 
by  the  conditions  mentioned,  make  it  possible  for  these  ordinarily  harmless 
bacteria  to  penetrate  into  the  blood  and  thence  into  the  lungs  and  other  organs 
and  cause  inflammations  which  may  prove  fatal.  But  the  harmful  activity  of 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 


9 


these  common  hog-yard  or  dirt  germs  can  be  prevented  by  proper  herd  man- 
agement. Dry  and  comfortable  sleeping  quarters  provided  with  clean  bed- 
ding at  proper  intervals,  and  a nutritious  ration,  are  simple  and  effective  means 
for  preventing  the  ordinary  pneumonic  attacks  which  have  often  been  diag- 
nosed as  epizootic  swine-plague  or  hemorrhagic  septicemia  of  swine. 

There  may  be  an  extra  virulent  type  of  the  hemorrhagic  septicemia  organ- 
ism which  is  highly  infectious  and  fatal  for  healthy  hogs,  but  up  to  the  present 
it  has  not  been  discovered.  Moreover,  experimental  evidence  indicates  strong- 
ly, if  it  does  not  prove  definitely,  that  treatment  of  swine  by  the  injection  of 
hemorrhagic  septicemia  “bacterins"  is  without  value,  either  as  a preventive  or 
a cure  of  the  pneumonic  and  hemorrhagic  conditions  mentioned. 

“MIXED  INFECTION"  AILMENTS 

What  has  been  said  about  hemorrhagic  septicemia  of  swine  is  equally  ap- 
plicable to  the  so-called  “mixed-infection"  disease  of  swine. 

There  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  the  great  majority  of  cases 
of  illness  in  swine,  which  are  thought  to  be  caused  by  mixed  infections,  are 
in  fact  cases  of  hog  cholera ; altho  the  case  may  be  complicated  with  secondary 
bacterial  invaders,  which,  under  ordinary  conditions,  are  quite  harmless. 

Experiments  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  show  that 
the  same  lesions,  or  diseased  conditions,  upon  which  the  diagnosis  of  “mixed- 
infection"  disease  has  been  based,  will  develop  in  pigs  which  are  inoculated 
with  hog-cholera  virus  and  are  let  run  the  full  course  of  the  disease  without 
treatment ; or  in  pigs  which  contract  cholera  from  natural  exposure  and  are 
allowed  to  die.  In  conjunction  with  this  it  was  also  shown  that  the  develop- 
ment of  these  so-called  mixed-infection  lesions  could  be  prevented  by  the  in- 
jection of  anti-hog-cholera  serum;  since  other  pigs  which  were  inoculated  with 
an  equal  amount  of  the  same  cholera  virus  and  a proper  dose  of  anti-hog- 
cholera  serum,  and  were  allowed  to  run  with  the  first  group  of  experiment 
pigs,  did  not  become  ill  from  the  vaccination  nor  contract  “mixed-infection" 
disease  from  the  sick  pigs  which  on  post  mortem  examination  showed  the  so- 
called  mixed  infection  lesions.  This  accords  with  practical  field  experience  in 
sick  herds;  a liberal  dose  of  anti-hog-cholera  serum  stops  the  outbreak,  altho 
the  post  mortems  show  the  “mixed  infection"  lesions. 

As  secondary  factors,  cooperating  with  the  highly  virulent  cholera  in- 
fection, it  is  quite  probable  that  some  of  the  common  hog-yard  bacteria  which 
are  swallowed  daily  and  which  under  ordinary  circumstances  are  quite  harm- 
less, may  act  as  irritants  to  the  already  inflamed  and  weakened  intestinal 
tissues,  and  aid  in  the  production  of  the  “button  ulcers"  and  the  diffuse  dip- 
theritic  and  necrotic  intestinal  lesions,  which  in  the  older  and  classic  literature 
were  regarded  as  signs  of  “chronic  hog  cholera."  This  diagnosis  would  still 
be  well  to  adhere  to,  because  of  the  probability  that  in  such  cases  the  primary 
and  essential  cause  of  the  outbreak  in  the  herd  is  hog-cholera  infection,  and 
because  of  the  probability  that  a greater  number  of  hogs  can  be  saved  by  the 
prompt  use  of  anti-hog-cholera  serum,  and  the  prompt  application  of  appropri- 
ate hygienic  measures,  than  can  be  saved  by  the  use  of  “mixed-infection"  vac- 
cines. 

These  diphtheritic  inflammations  of  the  intestines  are  more  liable  to  de- 
velop during  cholera  attacks  if  the  feedstuffs  are  of  a kind  which  tend  to 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


cause  bowel  disturbances.  And,  as  there  is  likely  to  be  considerable  immature 
and  soft  corn  to  feed  this  fall  (unless  the  ripening  season  is  prolonged  and  the 
frost  delayed),  it  is  especially  important  that  the  hogs  which  are  put  upon 
such  feed  should  be  well  immunized  against  cholera  before  the  heavy  feeding 
begins. 

“SWINE  INFLUENZA”  OR  “HOG  FLU” 

In  regard  to  “hog  flu,”  the  appearance  of  which  was  announced  in  an  ad- 
joining state  two  years  ago  (at  the  time  influenza  was  so  prevalent  among 
people),  the  quite  general  impression  among  the  conservative  veterinarians  is 
that  there  was  no  need  for  the  invention  of  this  new  term  to  designate  any  ail- 
ment from  which  the  swine  herds  were  suffering,  and  that  there  was  no  need 
for  any  special  vaccine  to  combat  the  supposed  new  swine  epizootic. 

What  the  new  corn  crop  may  bring  forth  in  the  way  of  fancied  or  real 
ailments,  and  new  remedies,  remains  to  be  seen.  But  the  writer’s  advice  to  the 
swine  feeders  and  veterinarians  is  to  take  heed  of  hog  cholera  and  to  defend 
the  herds  from  this  real  menace.  It  is  not  too  soon  to  begin  immunizing  the 
hogs  that  are  to  be  put  on  the  new  corn  crop,  if  the  losses  from  cholera  and 
its  complications  are  to  be  held  within  reasonable  bounds. 

DIAGNOSTIC  POINTS 

As  an  aid  to  diagnosis  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  include  a few  illustra- 
tions and  descriptions  of  the  most  prominent  diagnostic  signs  or  lesions 
found  in  hog  cholera  and  its  complications.  In  some  cases  the  diagnosis 
of  hog  cholera  is  easy,  while  in  others  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  even  for 
the  veterinarian  who  has  had  years  of  clinical  experience.  The  information 
contained  herein  cannot,  therefore,  give  to  the  swine-raiser  all  the  aid  that 
may  be  necessary  to  make  a diagnosis  of  hog  cholera  under  all  circum- 
stances. To  avoid  errors  in  diagnosis  and  delays  in  applying  proper  treat- 
ment, the  swine  raiser  is  advised  in  all  cases  where  it  is  feasible  to  secure 
the  services  of  a competent  graduate  veterinarian. 

In  several  counties  of  the  state,  however,  no  resident  veterinary  prac- 
titioner is  available  and  in  such  territory  the  swine  raisers  are  for  the  most 
part  dependent  upon  themselves  both  for  diagnosis  and  treatment.  In 
some  of  these  counties  even  the  help  of  a county  agent  cannot  be  had. 
The  descriptions  and  interpretations  of  the  different  figures  illustrating  the 
disease  conditions  are  therefore  made  as  simple  as  the  subject  matter  will 
permit,  having  in  mind  the  needs  of  swine  raisers  who  cannot  secure  veteri- 
nary aid.  Besides,  in  territory  where  veterinary  service  is  available,  a bet- 
ter knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  swine-raiser  as  to  what  hog  cholera  is 
will  lead  to  more  prompt  action  in  calling  for  professional  aid.  Experience 
has  shown  that  the  best  results  in  the  saving  of  hogs  and  in  the  control  of 
hog  cholera  is  by  the  intelligent  cooperation  of  the  swine  raisers  and  vet- 
erinarians. 

Nature  of  the  disease. — A definition  or  statement  concerning  the  gen- 
eral nature  of  hog  cholera  will  be  an  aid  to  diagnosis.  Hog  cholera  is  a 
specific  infections  disease;  that  is,  it  is  caused  by  a special  microbe,  and 
no  outbreak  of  the  disease  ever  occurs  in  a neighborhood  unless  this  special 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 


11 


microbe  is  present.  An  outbreak  cannot  occur  in  a herd  that  is  free  from 
the  disease  until  the  infection  is  brought  in  from  some  other  source  by  an 
infection-carrier,  as  by  the  purchase  of  one  or  more  cholera  infected  hogs, 
or  by  the  careless  use  of  hog  cholera  virus  in  vaccination  work,  or  by  con- 
tamination of  the  premises  from  sick  herds  in  the  neighborhood  thru  drain- 
age or  other  means.  The  disease  is  also  a highly  infectious  or  “catching” 
■disease,  spreading  certainly  and  quickly  thru  a herd  and  to  neighboring 
herds  if  measures  of  prevention  are  neglected,  and  the  death  rate  among 
infected  swine  is  usually  very  high. 

The  infectiousness,  epizootic  character,  and  high  death  rate  are  usually 
sufficient  to  establish  the  diagnonsis  of  hog  cholera  when  the  outbreak  has 
continued  long  enough  to  establish  a history  showing  these  characteristics, 
since  there  is  no  other  swine  ailment  to  compare  with  it  in  these  respects. 
But  at  the  beginning  of  an  outbreak  in  a neighborhood,  before  many  hogs 
have  died,  the  symptoms  and  post  mortem  findings  must  be  relied  upon  to 
determine  the  diagnosis. 

Symptoms. — As  to  the  symptoms,  these  are  by  no  means  always  diag- 
nostic; many  of  the  symptoms  are  the  same  as  observed  in  illness  from 
other  causes.  In  the  very  acute  type  of  the  disease,  hogs  may  die  without 
having  shown  any  noticeable  preliminary  stage  of  illness;  usually,  how- 
ever, a period  of  several  days’  illness  occurs  before  death,  the  animal 
showing  evidences  of  high  fever  by  thirst,  the  temperature  as  shown  by 
the  clinical  thermometer  varying  from  104  to  107  degrees. 

The  figure  on  the  cover  page  shows  a very  common  posture  in  the 
cholera-infected  pig.  In  cholera  the  animal  shows  extreme  weakness  and 
depression  and  a disinclination  to  move  about,  often  lying  in  bed  and  bur- 
rowing in  the  straw  as  if  to  cover  up  for  warmth,  and  when  aroused  and 
compelled  to  move  about  an  unsteadiness  of  gait  is  observed,  the  hind 
parts  wabbling  or  weaving  from  side  to  side. 

Diarrhea  is  frequently  observed,  but  some  pigs  are  severely  consti- 
pated. In  cases  showing  diarrhea  the  discharges  at  first  are  usually  of  a 
greenish  color  and  later  may  become  black  from  admixture  with  blood. 
In  some  cases  a bloody  discharge  is  seen.  In  the  more  chronic  cases  the 
discharges  are  often  yellow  or  ochre  colored,  the  so-called  typhoid  dis- 
charges, which  on  exposure  to  air  change  to  a reddish  orange  color. 

Bleeding  at  the  nose  and  the  passage  of  bloody  urine  have  also  been 
■observed  in  the  acute  hemorrhagic  type  of  cholera.  In  some  cases  the 
skin,  and  especially  on  the  belly  and  inner  face  of  the  hams,  appears  red- 
dened from  the  rupture  of  capillary  blood  vessels. 

A husky  cough  occurs  in  some  infected  animals  when  the  respiratory 
organs  are  involved,  but  this  occurs  also  from  other  causes. 

Lesions  or  disease  changes. — A study  of  the  autopsies  of  numerous  un- 
questioned cases  of  hog  cholera,  together  with  considerable  experimental 
evidence,  shows  that  in  addition  to  defining  hog  cholera  as  a “specific  in- 
fectious disease”  it  can  also  be  appropriately  termed  a “blood  disease”;  or 
in  more  technical  language,  a “septicemia,”  which  implies  that  the  microbic 
infection  or  virus  lives  and  multiplies  mainly  in  the  blood  stream  rather 
than  in  the  cellular  substance  of  the  various  organs  thru  which  the  blood 
circulates.  In  the  most  acute  type  of  the  disease  the  hog  may  die  after  a 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


short  period  of  extremely  high  fever  and  no  well-marked  lesions  or  signs 
of  disease  be  found  in  the  carcass.  Indeed  in  some  cases  if  the  animal  is 
slaughtered  at  the  height  of  the  fever  and  bled  out  and  dressed  as  a butch- 
ered animal,  the  carcass  and  visceral  organs  cannot  readily  be  distinguished 
from  those  of  a healthy  hog;  yet  if  a small  quantity  of  the  blood  of  such 
an  animal  is  inoculated  into  a healthy  pig,  or  if  the  pig  is  fed  portions  of 
the  apparently  healthy  viscera  (the  capillaries  of  which  still  retain  consid- 
erable blood),  an  attack  of  hog  cholera  is  certain  to  develop.  Hog  cholera 
therefore  in  its  simplest  form  is  a pure  “septicemia”  (or  blood  disease). 
When  the  veterinarian  or  the  swine  raiser  makes  an  examination  of  a case 
of  this  kind  and  finds  no  lesions  he  is  unable,  without  further  data,  to  make 
a diagnosis.  Fortunately,  however,  so  far  as  diagnosis  is  concerned,  it  is 
rare  for  an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera  to  occur  without  showing  some  posi- 
tive diagnostic  signs  early  in  the  outbreak.  In  fact,  the  larger  number  of 
autopsies  show  another  stage  of  the  disease,  namely,  the  occurrence  of  nu- 
merous minute  hemorrhages  in  the  various  organs  of  the  body  following 
the  rupture  of  capillary  blood  vessels.  In  some  cases  these  hemorrhages 
are  few  and  occur  only  in  a few  organs,  while  in  other  cases  the  hemor- 
rhages are  numerous  and  several  organs  show  the  lesions. 

The  descriptions  of  this  stage  or  phase  in  hog  cholera  will  be  better 
understood  by  a study  of  the  accompanying  figures  illustrating  the  hemor- 
rhagic lesions  occurring  in  the  several  organs. 

Lymph  nodes. — The  lymph  nodes  (lymph  glands  or  “kernels”)  show 
a hemorrhagic  condition  in  hog  cholera  more  constantly  perhaps  than  other 
structures.  The  “kernels”  in  the  throat  near  the  angle  of  the  jaw  should 
be  examined;  these  are  frequently  enlarged  from  congestion  of  the  blood 
vessels  and  show  evidences  of  capillary  hemorrhage  into  the  gland  tissue 
when  cut  across.  Some  of  the  lymph  glands  in  other  parts  of  the  body, 
which  it  is  advisable  to  examine,  are  the  inguinal  or  flank  glands  or  “ker- 
nels”; the  bronchial  and  mediastinal  glands,  in  the  thoracic  cavity;  the 
portal  glands  between  stomach  and  liver;  and  the  mesenteric  glands  in  the 
gut  fat.  In  health  these  glands  are  of  a grayish  or  leaden  color,  while  in 
cases  of  cholera  some  of  these  glands  will  often  be  red  or  even  black  from 
the  intense  congestion  with  blood,  and  hemorrhage  in  the  substance  of  the 
gland. 

Kidneys. — The  kidneys  perhaps  stand  next  in  the  constancy  of  the 
hemorrhagic  lesions.  These  organs  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  of  hog 
cholera  show  at  least  a few  minute  punctiform  glomerular  hemorrhages; 
and  in  some  cases  the  hemorrhages  are  quite  numerous  giving  the  kidney 
a well-speckled  appearance,  the  so-called  “turkey-egg”  appearance.  (See 
Figure  2.)  The  lower  or  ventral  surface  usually  shows  more  blood  specks 
than  the  upper  or  dorsal  surface. 

The  pelvis  of  the  kidney,  the  ureters,  and  the  urinary  bladder  occa- 
sionally show  signs  of  capillary  hemorrhage  in  swine  affected  with  hog 
cholera.  Cases  have  been  observed  in  which  the  urinary  bladder  was  dis- 
tended with  bloody  urine. 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 


13 


Fig.  2. — Kidney  showing  hemorrhagic  lesion  of  hog  cholera 


Heart. — The  heart  occasionally, 
tho  not  frequently,  shows  numer- 
ous small  hemorrhagic  spots  be- 
neath the  pericardium,  especially 
at  the  upper  portion  of  the  heart. 
(See  Figure  3.) 

Lungs. — The  lungs  in  many  cas- 
es are  quite  normal  in  appearance; 
but  in  other  cases,  hemorrhages 
varying  in  size  and  number  are 
found  scattered  over  the  surface  of 
the  several  lobes,  just  beneath  the 
pleural  covering.  The  “blood 
shot”  spots  vary  in  size  from  that 
of  a pin-head  to  areas  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 
(See  Figure  4.)  The  cross-section 
of  such  a lung  also  shows  hemor- 
rhages in  the  deeper  portions. 

Stomach. — The  stomach  in  many 
cases  appears  normal  both  outside 
and  inside  the  organ,  while  in  oth- 
er cases  spots  of  hemorrhages  are 
found  on  one  or  both  surfaces, 

, Tr  most  frequently  on  the  inner  sur- 

riG.  3. — Hemorrhages  in  heart  of  pig  af-  . 

fected  With  cholera  face  m the  submucous  layer.  Oc- 

casionally a massive  blood  clot  is 
found  in  the  cavity  of  the  stomach  of  a hog  that  has  died  from  hog  cholera. 

Intestines. — The  small  intestines  rarely  show  hemorrhages  either  on 
the  outer  or  inner  surface  but  occasionally  the  subserous  space  is  well 
dotted  with  minute  hemorrhages.  Such  hemorrhages  occur  more  frequent- 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


\y  in  the  inner  coat  of  the  small  intestines.  Sometimes  extravasation  of 
blood  takes  place  thru  the  mucous  coat  into  the  cavity  of  the  gut.  Hem- 
orrhagic spots  varying  in  size  are  observed  more  frequently  in  the  walls 
of  the  large  intestines  in  swine  affected  with  hog  cholera.  (See  Figure  5.) 
The  food  contents  of  the  large  intestines  are  sometimes  strongly  tinged 
with  blood  from  hemorrhage  into  the  cavity  of  the  gut. 


Fig.  4. — Lungs  of  hog  showing  hemorrhagic  cholera  lesions 

This  well-marked  tendency  for  ruptures  of  the  capillaries  to  occur  in 
the  various  organs,  resulting  in  numerous  pin-point  and  larger  hemor- 
rhages shows  that  hog  cholera,  in  addition  to  being  a “septicemia,”  is  also  a 
hemorrhagic  disease,  and  might  in  many  cases  be  appropriately  termed  a 
“hemorrhagic  septicemia,”  except  for  the  fact  that  this  term  is  already 
used  to  designate  an  identical  condition  which  is  supposed  to  be  caused  by 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 


15 


a different  microbe,  namely,  the  “Bacterium  suisepticus”  or  swine  plague 
bacterium,  or  as  it  is  now  more  popularly  known  the  “bacterium  of  hem- 
orrhagic septicemia  of  swine.”  But,  as  already  mentioned  in  the  earlier 
portion  of  this  circular,  the  so-called  hemorrhagic  septicemia  organism  is 
probably  not,  as  an  independent  and  primary  agent,  a serious  factor  in  the 
production  of  any  epizootic  disease  among  swine.  And  the  probabilities 
are  that  the  capillary  ruptures  and  resultant  hemorrhages  are  caused  by 
the  more  highly  virulent  and  toxic  infection  of  hog  cholera,  and  not  by  the 
“bacterium  suisepticus,”  or  misnamed  “hemorrhagic  septicemia”  organism; 
and  that  when  the  latter  gains  entrance  into  the  tissues,  this  occurs  as  a 
rule  only  as  a secondary  invader  through  the  lesions  or  ruptures  produced 
by  the  hog-cholera  virus.  For  practical  diagnosis,  therefore,  these  hemor- 


Fig.  5. — Hemorrhages  in  large  intestines  of  hog  affected  with  hog  cholera 


rhages  should  be  regarded  by  the  veterinary  practitioner  and  the  swine 
raiser  as  evidences  of  hog  cholera.  Prompt  treatment  with  anti-hog- 
cholera  serum  should  be  given  when  such  lesions  are  found. 

Secondary  'lesions. — The  numerous  minute  ruptures  in  the  capillary 
blood-vessels  of  the  lungs  and  intestines  give  easy  ingress  into  the  injured 
tissues  to  any  of  the  hog-yard  bacteria  which  at  the  time  may  be  present 
on- the  mucous  surface  of  these  organs  ; and  these  micro-organisms,  which 
in  the  healthy  animal  are  quite  harmless  or  rarely  pathogenic,  may  act  as 
local  irritants  or  “wound  infections”  to  the  already  injured  lungs  and 
intestines,  and  thus  in  conjunction  with  the  hog  cholera  infection  may  give 
rise  to  a fatal  broncho-pneumonia,'  when  the  primary  hog  cholera  lesions 
occur  in  the  lungs;  or  to  a diphtheritic  inflammation  of  the  intestines  in 
cases  where  the  primary  lesions  of  hog  cholera*  are  more  pronounced  in 
these  organs.  These  secondary  lesions  of  the  lungs  are  shown  in  Figure 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


6.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  addition  to  several  subpleural  hemorrhagic  spots 
on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  left  lung,  as  at  the  point  "e,”  and  the  hemor- 
rhagic lymph-nodes  in  the  space  between  the  lungs,  as  at  the  point  “d," 
there  are  also  well-marked  areas  of  solidification  from  broncho-pneumonia 
in  the  right  lung.  The  greater  part  of  the  cervical  lobe  “a,”  the  middle 
lobe  *‘b,”  and  the  anterior  outer  portion  of  the  posterior  or  principal  lobe, 
as  at  the  point  “c,”  all  show  solidification. 

There  can  be  scarcely”  any  doubt  that  the  hog-cholera  infection,-  be- 
cause of  its  virulency  and  prolonged  vitality  in  the  infected  animal,  is 
capable  of  producing  these  pneumonic  lesions  without  the  intervention 
of  other  microbic  infections,  since  attempts  to  isolate  bacteria  from  a pneu- 
monic lesion  by  bacteriological  methods  often  fail  in  cases  of  hog  cholera. 
But  as  the  conditions  at  times  are  quite  favorable  for  the  penetration  of 


Fig.  6. — Lungs  of  hog  affected  with  cholera,  showing  pneumonic  areas  “a.”  * b.”  “c?’; 
hemorrhagic  spots  “e”;  congested  lymph  nodes  *‘d’’ 

the  injured  tissues  by  bacteria  of  various  kinds,  which  may  have  been  in- 
haled with  the  dust  of  the  barn-y'ard,  these  bacteria  frequently  do  penetrate 
the  injured  lung  tissue  and  can  be  isolated  and  studied.  Both  bacillary  and 
coccus  forms  have  been  found  in  the  lungs  of  hogs  which  have  died  from 
cholera  as  has  been  shown  in  the  work  of  this  laboratory.  The  evidence, 
however,  is  lacking  that  an}*-  of  these  secondary  bacterial  infections  are 
responsible  for  serious  outbreaks  of  swine  disease,  or  need  to  be  combated 
by  other  measures  than  good  sanitation,  proper  feeding  and  shelter,  and 
the  proper  use  of  anti-hog-cholera  serum. 

As  to  the  chronic  intestinal  lesions  which  are  frequently  associated 
with  hog  cholera,  the  development  of  these  can  be  more  readily  under- 
stood by  keeping  in  mind  the  earlier  stages  of  cholera  in  which  occur  the 
numerous  minute  hemorrhages  in  the  mucous  and  submucous  layers  of  the 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 


17 


intestine,  as  shown  in  Figure  5,  and  by  comparing  this  with  Figure  7 show- 
ing numerous  diphtheritic  spots  and  patches.  Figure  8 shows  a less  diffuse 
ulceration,  one  large  “button  ulcer”  and  several  minute  ulcers. 

If  the  pig  showing  these  ulcerative  or  diphtheritic  lesions  had  been 
killed  a few  days  sooner  the  intestines  would  probably  have  shown  the 
hemorrhagic  lesions  instead  of  the  ulcerated  or  diphtheritic  condition. 

The  invasion  of  the  hemorrhagic  cholera  wounds  by  the  ordinary  hog- 
yard  bacteria  or  common  intestinal  flora  may  add  to  the  irritation  and  in- 
flammatory action  initiated  by  the  hog-cholera  infection  or  virus.  Prac- 
tical clinical  experience  has  shown  that  the  most  effective  preventive 
measures  against  this  necrotic  enteritis  or  “mixed  infection”  bowel  trouble 
are  to  guard  against  the  initial  or  hemorrhagic  lesions  of  hog  cholera  by 
using  liberal  doses  of  anti-hog-cholera  serum  at  the  beginning  of  an  out- 
break of  cholera,  or  when  immunizing  a herd  by  the  double-method  and  to 


Fig.  7. — Section  of  large  intestines  of  hog  affected  with  cholera,  showing  diffuse 
“diptheritic”  or  * necrotic"  spots 


give  proper  attention  to  feeding,  and  other  hygenic  measures.  If  these  le- 
sions are  found  in  a herd  of  swine  which  has  had  a “break”  following  dou- 
ble vaccination,  the  herd  should  be  revaccinated  with  anti-hog-cholera 
serum,  and  fed  for  awhile  on  a soft  or  thin-slop  ration,  restricted  in  amount. 

There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  these  so-called  “mixed  infection” 
intestinal  lesions,  or  necrotic  conditions,  are  in  reality  a stage  in  the  heal- 
ing process  of  the  initial  hemorrhagic  hog-cholera  lesion,  and  not  a pro- 
gressive disease  process  due  to  secondary  bacterial  invaders  or  “mixed  in- 
fections.” In  other  words,  that  what  is  observed  is  in  fact  an  effort  on  the 
port  of  the  healthy  cells  of  the  intestines  to  separate  and  slough  off  the 
blood-cots  or  “infarcts”  and  dead  portions  of  the  mucous  and  submucous 
tissues  which  have  been  killed  by  the  cholera  infection;  and  that  the 
various  bacteria  found  in  the  necrotic  tissues  are  present  merely  in  the  role 
of  harmless  saprophytes  feeding  upon  the  already  dead  tissues,  rather  than 
as  disease-producing  parasites  which  have  killed  living  tissues.  Figure  9 
shows  “button  ulcers”  as  the  healing  process  was  underway.  When  this 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


dead  or  necrotic  intestinal  tissue  is  extensive  the  nutritive  functions  of 
the  animal  are  greatly  disturbed,  and  doubtless  considerable  “cadaveric”’ 
or  necrotic  “toxin”  is  absorbed  into  the  blood  stream  and  increases  the 
depression  of  the  affected  animal.  Moreover,  under  the  conditions  men- 
tioned, intestinal  bacteria  may  invade  the  blood  stream  and  be  found  at 
times  in  the  spleen,  liver  and  kidneys.  But  this  has  little  significance  as  an 
indication  that  these  invading  bacteria  are  specific  disease  producers,  and 


Fig.  8. — Section  of  large  intestines  showing  more  isolated  necrotic  cholera  lesions — a large 
* button  ulcer”  and  several  small  ulcers  or  necroses 


less  justification  for  their  use  in  the  form  of  “bacterins”  or  “mixed  infec- 
tion” vaccines  for  the  immunization  of  swine  against  the  occurrence  of  the 
necrotic  conditions  found  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  swine.  It  should  be 
kept  in  mind  that  these  bacteria  are  normal  inhabitants  of  the  intestines 
and  if,  as  living  bacteria  in  constant  contact  with  the  intestinal  mucosa, 
they  have  been  unable  to  produce  an  immunity,  it  is  not  probable  that 
when  they  are  grown  artificially  outside  the  body,  and  killed  by  heat 
and  thus  converted  into  dead  bacteria  or  “bacterins,”  they  could  give  any 


Hog  Cholera  and  Immature  Corn 


19 


practical  immunity  against  the  disease-conditions  mentioned.  The  good 
clinical  results  following  the  use  of  the  “mixed  infection”  vaccines  which 
have  been  reported  from  time  to  time  in  the  veterinary  journals  by  a num- 
ber of  practitioners,  as  well  as  the  results  reported  by  the  trade  bulletins 
of  the  veterinary  biological  companies,  are  probably  accounted  for  by  the 
better  care  of  the  herd  which  is  instituted  when  a diagnosis  of  “mixed 
infection”  disease  is  made.  The  anti-hog-cholera  serum  which  is  usually 
administered  at  the  same  time  should  receive  due  credit  for  the  good  re- 
sults in  preventing  further  losses  in  the  herd. 

The  safe  conclusion  for  the  swine  raiser  and  the  busy  veterinary  prac- 


Fig.  9. — Section  of  cecum  and  colon  showing  ‘ healing  stage”  at  margins  of  button- 

ulcers 


titioner  is  to  regard  all  the  lesions  which  have  been  described  as  evidences 
of  hog-cholera  infection  in  the  herd;  and  the  safest  action  is  to  vaccinate 
the  herd  promptly  with  anti-hog-cholera  serum  and  to  give  the  herd  such 
special  care  as  to  feeding  and  shelter  as  the  conditions  may  require. 

A research  bulletin  on  some  of  the  phases  of  hog  cholera  touched  upon  in  the  preced- 
ing pages  is  in  preparation,  which  because  of  its  more  technical  nature  and  the  incorpora- 
tion of  experimental  details  will  be  of  special  interest  to  the  veterinarians  rather  than  the 
swine  raiser. 


SUMMARY  OF  FACTS  TO  REMEMBER 

1.  Hog  cholera  is  caused  by  a living  germ,  virus  or  infection. 

2.  The  disease  is  contagious,  or  “catching”  by  contact  with  the  sick 
animal  or  its  excretions. 

3.  Hogs  in  low  vitality  from  worms,  lice,  lack  of  proper  nourishment, 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  174 


poor  care,  fatigue,  overheat  or  undue  exposure  to  cold  are  less  resistant  to 
the  disease  than  vigorous  swine  in  a good  state  of  nutrition  and  properly 
cared  for. 

4.  The  anti-hog-cholera  serum  contains  the  protective  substances  which 
prevent  cholera,  and  does  not  introduce  disease;  but  it  gives  only  a passive 
or  temporary  immunity. 

5.  The  “virus”  used  in  the  “double”  or  serum-virus  treatment  is  blood 
from  a hog  affected  with  cholera  in  the  acute  form,  and  if  injected  without 
serum  produces  an  acute  attack  of  cholera. 

6.  The  serum  and  virus  when  injected  at  the  same  time,  in  proper 
proportions,  into  healthy  swine  which  receive  proper  after-care  confer  a 
tolerably  lasting  immunity. 

7.  The  “virus”  remains  alive  and  virulent  in  the  blood  of  double-treated 
swine  for  three  or  four  weeks  after  vaccination;  proper  after-care  should 
therefore  be  given  double-treated  hogs  to  avoid  a “break”  from  “vaccina- 
tion cholera.” 

8.  “Breaks”  following  double  treatment  may  occur  if  the  virus  is  a 
weak  or  dead  virus,  the  immunity  in  such  cases  being  of  scarcely  greater 
duration  than  the  immunity  from  serum-alone  vaccination. 

9.  “Breaks”  from  vaccination  cholera  following  the  double  treatment 
may  occur  if  the  virus  is  active  and  the  serum  is  low  in  potency.  The 
virus  in  such  a case  is  not  held  in  check  and  develops  visible  signs  of  ill- 
ness which  may  result  in  the  death  of  several  vaccinated  animals. 

10.  “Breaks”  from  vaccination  cholera  following  the  double  treatment 
may  occur  when  active  virus  and  fully  potent  serum  are  administered  to 
swine  of  low  vitality.  The  natural  resistance  of  the  animal  plus  the  “serum 
reinforcement”  being  insufficient  to  withstand  the  disease  activity  of  the 
virus.  Avoid  as  much  as  possible  giving  virus  to  swine  which  are  out  of 
condition;  give  serum  alone  and  later  apply  double  treatment.  But  if  this 
is  not  feasible,  increase  the  dose  of  serum  considerably  when  giving  the 
double  treatment. 

11.  “Breaks”  from  vaccination  cholera  are  liable  to  occur  in  swine 
which  are  subjected  to  unusual  conditions  of  fatigue,  from  long  railroad 
hauls,  or  excessive  handling  too  soon  after  vaccination,  even  tho  such 
swine  were  in  thrifty  condition  when  vaccinated,  and  were  given  serum  and 
virus  of  good  Quality  and  proper  dosage.  Careful  attention  and  light  ra- 
tions for  several  days  may  prevent  losses,  and  revaccination  in  most  cases 
will  prove  helpful. 

12.  Bring  the  double-treated  herd  onto  full  feed  gradually,  and 
maintain  a proper  balance  of  supplements,  such  as  tankage  and  oil  meal. 

13.  If  sickness  occurs  in  a herd  of  double-treated  hogs  within  three 
or  four  weeks  after  vaccination,  cut  down  the  feed  at  once,  separate  the 
sick  animals,  call  the  veterinarian,  take  temperatures,  and  if  autopsies  show 
lesions  like  those  described  in  the  foregoing  pages  revaccinate  the  herd 
with  anti-hog-cholera  serum. 

14.  A common  fault  in  vaccinating  hogs  is  to  give  too  small  a dose 
of  serum.  It  is  better  to  give  a few  cubic  centimeters  too  much  than  a few 
cubic  centimeters  too  little.  In  the  former  case  the  loss  in  extra  expense  is 
slight,  while  in  the  latter  case  both  the  serum  and  the  hog  may  be  lost. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  NO.  175 


INFLUENCE  OF  CAPITAL 

ON 

FARM  ORGANIZATION 

I.  IN  A LIVE-STOCK  SECTION 


The  feeding  of  silage  was  common  on  the  more  successful  farms 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
OCTOBER,  1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

the;  curators  of  the  university  of  Missouri 

EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 
OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

October,  1920 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.2 

R.  M.  Smith,  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedmann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  Sieveking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  B.  Culbertson,  Jr.,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  W.  Manning,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

G.  W.  York,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B.  S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

L-  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Bernard.  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  Edinger,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale,  b.  S.  in  Agr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Samuel  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B^S.  in  Agr. 

D.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

S.  R.  McLane 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  Gromer,  A.  M. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

B.  H.  Frame 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  F.  Major,  B.  S. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  SwartwouT,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L-  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 
R.  B.  Price,  M.  S..  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S.,  Secretary 
Sam  B.  Shirkey,  Asst,  to  Dean 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 
Miss  Salome  Comstock,1  Seed  Testing 
Laboratory 


*In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
2On  leave  of  absence. 


Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 

I.  In  Live-Stock  Section 

O.  R.  Johnson,  R.  M.  Green* 


The  amount  of  money  a farmer  has  to  work  with  is  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  determining  his  success.  The  capital  usually  deter- 
mines not  only  the  kind  of  farming  he  shall  undertake  but  also  the  locality 
which  he  chooses.  As  prices  increase  and  as  land  values  rise  capital  be- 
comes more  than  ever  a determining  factor.  To  determine  the  importance 
of  the  amount  of  money  a man  has  to  work  with,  special  study  has  been 
made  in  two  sections  of  Missouri  that  contrast  live-stock  farming  and  high- 
priced  land  with  grain  farming  and  low-priced  land.  In  this  discussion 
only  the  first  section  studied  will  be  dealt  with.  The  second  section  will 
appear  in  a later  report. 

The  region  chosen  for  this  part  of  the  work  was  Saline  County,  Mis- 
souri. Two  hundred  and  two  farms  were  included  and  the  figures  from 
these  are  for  the  farm  year  1914-15.  Statistics  were  collected  from  farmers 
by  means  of  the  survey  method.  This  included  the  obtaining  of  inventories 
for  the  beginning  and  close  of  a farm  year,  also  the  recepits  and  expenses 
for  that  year.  Certain  additional  information  is  gathered  regarding  prices, 
crop  yields  and  many  farm  practices.  The  object  is  not  only  to  obtain  the 
farmer’s  net  income  for  the  year  but  to  have  enough  additional  information 
to  be  able  to  give  specific  reasons  for  his  success  or  lack  of  success. 

The  part  of  Saline  County  studied  is  about  one-fourth  or  one-fifth  of 
the  county  extending  from  Marshall  north  and  west.  The  soil  in  the  region 
is  very  fertile.  It  is  primarily  a corn  and  a live-stock  feeding  section.  The 
average  yield  of  corn  is  approximately  forty  bushels.  As  this  particular 
region  is  better  than  the  average  of  Saline  County  the  yield  will  probably 
differ  a little  from  that  average.  Wheat  does  not  do  particularly  well  yet 
yields  of  between  twenty  and  thirty  bushels  are  not  unusual.  The  average 
yield  of  various  crops  on  the  farms  studied  for  1914  are:  Corn,  36.3  bu.; 

wheat,  16.4  bu.;  oats,  19.3  bu. ; timothy  and  clover  hay,  1.1  tons;  alfalfa, 
3.5  tons. 

As  this  is  a region  where  land  values  are  very  high,  capital  really  plays 
an  important  part  in  farm  operations.  In  attempting  to  find  out  what  a 
farmer  can  do  with  a certain  amount  of  capital,  the  farms  must  be  grouped 
according  to  amount  of  capital  actually  possessed  by  the  operator.  He  may 
rent  some  additional  land,  or  he  may  rent  all  the  land  he  farms,  or  he  may 
be  renting  some  of  his  owned  land  to  another  farmer,  yet  he  is  put  into 
the  group  with  men  who  actually  possess  an  amount  of  capital  which  falls 
within  this  group.  For  illustration,  in  the  first  group  of  farms  are  men 
with  a capital  of  less  than  $5,000.  In  this  group  (Table  1)  only  two  farm- 
ers owned  all  the  land  they  operated,  two  others  owned  a little  land  and 
rented  some  additional.  The  remaining  fifty-two  farmers  rented  all  the  land 


Resigned,  August,  1920. 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


they  operated.  These  farms  varied  in  size  from  20  acres  to  327  acres.  Thus 
it  is  seen  that  different  farmers  have  different  ideas  of  how  best  to  use  a 
capital  of  less  than  $5,000  in  farming.  The  exact  amount  of  capital  he  uses 
in  the  nature  of  rented  land  is  shown  in  Table  1 for  each  group  of  farms 
studied.  Table  2 shoves  that  in  all  groups,  some  farmers  use  just  their  own 
land,  some  rent  out  some  of  their  land,  and  others  think  they  make  more 
from  farming  the  other  man’s  land  than  by  owning  it,  for  which  reason 
they  rent  additional  land. 

The  object  in  dividing  each  group  of  farms  studied  into  two  classes 
should  be  explained.  Farmers  as  well  as  men  in  other  business  believe 
that  the  best  way  to  get  pointers  on  successful  methods  of  conducting  their 
business  is  to  study  the  methods  and  practices  of  successful  business  men 
engaged  in  that  line  of  work  and  that  the  best  way  to  learn  what  practices 
would  fit  their  conditions  is  to  study  the  successful  operators  in  that  line 
of  business  under  similar  conditions.  A good  way  to  have  these  differences 
firmly  impressed  on  one’s  memory  is  to  compare  the  two  classes  just  men- 


Table  1. — Capitae  Used  in  Land  Rented  by  Operators  in  Each  Capital  Group 


Operator’s 
capital  group 

Acres 

farmed 

Owned  capital 
per  farm 

Acres  rented 
per  farm 

Value 

Under  $5000 

Ivow  labor-income 

141.8 

$ 2,133 

139.7 

$16,759 

High  labor-income  .... 

194.1 

2,353 

194.1 

27,849 

$5000  to  $20,000 

Low  labor-income 

124.3 

13,988 

37.8 

4,457 

High  labor-income  ... 

143.3 

12,394 

82.3 

11,930 

$20,000  to  $40,000 

Low  labor-income 

208.7 

29,740 

20.5 

2,758 

High  labor-income  .... 

212.1 

29,380 

41.7 

6,585 

Over  $40,000 

Lowr  labor-income 

321.2 

62,563 

48.8 

5.674 

High  labor-income  ... 

369.4 

65,125 

46.8 

6.179 

Table  2. — Land 

Leasing  Policy 

of  Men  in  Each  Capital 

Group 

Capital  group 

Number  of 
farms 

Per  cent 

Farming  own 
land  only 

of  operators 

Renting  Renting 

more  land  out  land 

Under  $5000 

Low  

25 

8 

92 



High  

31 

0 

100 

$5000  to  $20,000 

Low  

30 

60 

40 

.... 

High  

31 

55 

45 

$20,000  to  $40,000 

Low  

24 

46 

21 

33 

High  

17 

59 

35 

6 

Over  $40,000 

Low*  

23 

48 

13 

44 

High*  

22 

44 

32 

32 

Some  men  in  these  groups  rented  out  some  land  and  then  rented  more  to  farm,  themselves. 


Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 


b 


tioned;  namely,  the  successful  and  the  unsuccessful  engaged  in  similar  lines 
of  business. 

It  is  obviously  impossible  to  study  by  direct  observation  the  methods 
and  practices  of  any  considerable  number  of  farms.  Therefore,  a measure 
which  is  fair  to  all  and  which  can  be  applied  to  a farmer’s  record,  must  be 
determined.  For  this  purpose  labor-income  has  been  used  for  a number 
of  years.  Labor-income  is  what  the  farmer  has  left  as  wages  for  his  labor 
and  management  after  paying  all  operating  expenses  of  the  farm  and  allow- 
ing his  capital  5 per  cent  as  its  fair  earning  for  the  year.  The  value  of 
products  furnished  by  the  farm  toward  the  family  living,  including  house 
rent,  is  not  charged  as  a farm  receipt,  neither  are  cash  expenses  of  the 
family  living  charged  as  a farm  expense. 

The  farms  studied  are  divided  into  four  groups  and  each  group  is  fur- 
ther divided  into  a class  of  successful  and  a class  of  less  successful  opera- 
tors. In  several  of  these  classes  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  labor-income 
is  given  with  a minus  sign  before  it.  This  means  that  the  operator  failed 
by  this  amount  to  make  5 per  cent  interest  on  his  investment.  Table  3 
shows  the  number  of  farms  in  each  class  of  each  group  studied  together 
with  the  average  labor  income  made  by  this  class. 

In  making  the  labor-income  divisions  in  each  group,  a dividing  point  is 
used  which  gives  approximately  the  same  number  of  farms  in  each  class. 
(Table  3.)  The  division  used  was  $100  labor-income  in  all  classes  except 
the  first.  In  other  words  the  class  marked  low  labor-income  included 
farms  which  made  less  than  $100  wages  for  the  operator.  Those  marked 
high  income  made  more  than  $100  wages  for  the  operator.  This  division 
had  to  be  changed  in  the  first  group  because  not  enough  farms  fell  in  the 
low  group.  It  was  found  necessary  to  raise  the  division  point  to  $600. 

After  this  general  discussion  each  group  will  be  considered  individually 
and  the  practices  of  the  more  successful!  farmers  will  be  contrasted  with 
the  practices  of  the  less  successful.  This  will  eventually  give  a fair  idea  of 
what  a man  may  expect  to  do  with  a given  amount  of  capital,  provided  he 
conforms  more  or  less  to  practices  which  seem  to  pay  best  in  that  par- 
ticular group. 


Table  3. — Average  Labor  Incomes  Made  by  Men  oe  Each  Class  in  the 

Capital  Group 


Capital 

group 

No.  farms 

Labor-income 

$5000  or  Less 

Labor-income 

under  $600  

25 

$ 210 

Labor-income 

over  $600  

31 

1115 

$5000— $20,000 

Labor-income 

under  $100  

30 

-354 

Labor-income 

over  $100  

31 

1065 

$20.000— $40,000 

Labor-income 

under  $100  

24 

-794 

Labor-income 

over  $100  

17 

706 

Over  $40,000 

Labor-income 

under  $100  

23 

-1927 

Labor-income 

over  $100  

22 

2486 

6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


FARMERS  POSSESSING  LESS  THAN  $5000  CAPITAL 

In  studying  the  operations  of  farmers  who  have  less  than  $5000  capital, 
it  is  found  first  that  practically  all  men  in  this  group  are  renters.  These 
farmers  virtually  agree  that  with  no  more  capital  than  this,  their  funds 
should  be  devoted  to  equipment  and  live  stock.  Only  four  farmers  in  the 
list  made  any  attempt  to  own  land.  While  these  men  agree  as  to  the  ad- 
visability of  not  trying  to  own  land  wfith  the  limited  capital  they  possess, 
yet  their  ideas  of  a farm  are  decidedly  different.  One,  for  example,  was 
farming  24 y2  acres,  another  20  acres,  and  another  27  acres.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  were  21  farming  more  than  200  acres  of  land.  They  also  dif- 
fered in  regard  to  the  amount  of  investment  deemed  advisable  for  live 
stock  and  machinery.  Some  farmers  had  such  investments  in  work  stock, 
for  illustration,  as  $175  on  a 90-acre  farm  or  $390  on  a 180-acre  or  $150 
on  a 107-acre  farm.  On  the  other  hand  another  man  had  as  much  as  one- 
half  of  his  capital  invested  in  work  animals.  In  regard  to  other  classes 
of  live  stock  we  find  similar  variations.  With  machinery  the  situation  is 
the  same  as  with  work  animals.  Considering  the  variation  in  men’s  ideas 
of  the  way  they  should  invest  their  capital,  it  will  be  desirable  to  compare 
the  men  making  fair  incomes  with  those  making  poor  incomes  to  see  if  the 
more  successful  farmers  have  any  uniformity  of  methods  or  to  see  if  their 
methods  uniformly  differ  in  any  respect  from  those  of  the  less  successful 
ones. 

These  men  are  divided  into  two  classes  depending  on  whether  they 
made  a labor-income  larger  or  smaller  than  $600.  Thirty-one  farms  in  this 
group  fall  into  the  class  of  lower  labor-incomes,  and  twenty-five  fall  into 
the  class  of  higher  incomes.  The  distribution  of  farms  in  each  class  is 
given  in  Table  4.  While  the  farmers  of  each  class  possess  about  the  same 
capital,  yet  84  per  cent  of  those  in  the  high  income  class  have  more  than 
$1000  capital  and  less  than  $4000  while  22  per  cent  of  the  low  income  class 
have  less  than  $1000,  and  16.2  per  cent  have  more  than  $4000.  There  are 
fewer  farms  in  the  extreme  capital  divisions  in  the  high  income  class. 

Regarding  the  distribution  of  investment,  the  high  income  class  have 
$400  more  invested  in  live  stock  and  $90  more  in  machinery.  (Table  5.) 
The  low  income  class  have  14  per  cent  of  their  money  invested  in  land. 
No  doubt  land  is  a factor  of  no  small  importance  in  explaining  the  differ- 
ence in  labor-income  made  by  the  two  groups. 

Studies  of  live  stock  and  cropping  systems  give  some  further  reasons 
for  the  difference  in  income.  The  high  income  class  kept  two  more  work 


Table  4. — Distribution  oe  Operators  Capital  in  Group  1 


Amount  of  capital  High  income  class  Low  income  class 

No.  of  Per  cent  No.  of  Per  Cent 

farmers  of  total  farmers  of  total 

Under  $1000  3 12  7 22.6 

$1001 — $2000  : 7 28  11  35.5 

$2001 — $3000  10  40  5 16.2 

$3001 — $4000  4 16  3 9.7 

Over  $4000  1 4 5 16.2 


Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 


7 


horses  per  farm  than  did  the  low  income  class.  They  also  kept  one  more 
brood  sow  and  raised  more  pigs.  With  other  stock  the  amount  kept  was 
about  the  same  in  both  classes.  However,  in  the  high  income  class  a larger 
profit  was  made  on  all  classes  of  live  stock.  With  a total  difference  in 
labor-income  of  $905,  nearly  18  per  cent  of  this  sum  was  due  to  larger 
profits  on  hogs,  3 per  cent  to  better  management  of  cattle,  and  6 per  cent 
to  poultry. 

With  crops  the  high  income  groups  show  a marked  difference  from  the 
low  in  the  two  more  important  crops,  corn  and  wheat.  They  grew  ap- 
proximately 50  per  cent  larger  acreage  of  each  crop,  with  1080  bushels  more 
corn  and  359  bushels  more  wheat.  The  increased  acreage  and  better  yield 
of  corn  were  responsible  for  67.7  per  cent  of  the  difference  in  labor-income, 
while  wheat  was  responsible  for  4*4  per  cent  of  the  difference.  (Table  6.) 
Variation  in  crop  yields  was  not  marked.  Most  of  the  difference  was  due 
to  increased  acreage. 

The  larger  acreage  of  crops  grown  by  the  more  successful  farmers 


Table  5. — Distribution  oe  Investment  on  Farms  in  Group  1 ( under  $5000) 


Investment  in — 

High 

income  class 

Low  income  class 

Dollars 

Per  cent 

Dollars 

Per  cent 

Land  

300 

14 

Work  Stock  

938 

40 

687 

32 

Other  Live  Stock  

695 

30 

539 

25 

Machinery  

380 

16 

290 

14 

Miscellaneous  

340 

14 

317 

15 

Total  

2353 

100 

2133 

100 

Table  6. — Size  oe  the 

Important 

Enterprises  on 

the  Farms 

oe  Group  I 

With 

Percentage  Efeect  on  Labor-Income 

Enterprise 

High 

Low 

Dollars 

Per  cent 

income 

income 

differ- 

effect on 

class 

class 

ence 

difference 

in  income 

Per  cent 

Acres  of  corn 

72 

49.6 

$612 

67.7 

Acres  of  wheat  

54.7 

28.8 

42 

4.5 

*Animal  units  in  cattle. 

2.4 

2.2 

28 

3.1 

*Animal  units  in  hogs. 

3.7 

3.0 

159 

17.7 

*Animal  units  in  poultrv  1 

1 

55 

6.0 

Miscellaneous  

9 

1.0 

tFeed  fed  per  animal 

unit 

$51 

$53 

Difference  in  labor- 

income  

$905.10 

100 

*An  animal  unit  is  a mature  work  horse  or  its  equivalent  in  other  live  stock  based  on 
relative  amounts  of  feed  consumed  in  one  year.  Thus  each  of  the  following  are  equal  to 
one  animal  unit:  1 workhorse,  3 other  horses,  2 dairy  cows,  3 farm  milk  cows,  4 cattle 
under  2 years,  3 cattle  over  2 years,  4 brood  sows,  3 fattening  hogs,  23  ewes  and  their 
lambs,  or  122  hens  and  their  increase. 

tFeed  fed  per  animal  unit  means  value  of  feed  produced  on  the  farm,  and  not  sold, 
for  each  unit  of  live  stock  kept.  This  indicates  the  relative  efficiency  with  which  feeds  are 
utilized. 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


enabled  them  to  use  their  work  stock  to  better  advantage.  The  feed  cost 
for  this  work  stock  was  practically  the  same  on  all  farms,  while  the 
farmers  making  the  larger  incomes  grew  19.5  acres  of  crops  for  each  work 
horse  as  compared  to  15.9  acres  of  crops  for  each  horse  kept  in  the  group 
making  lower  incomes.  (Table  7.) 

The  difference  in  incomes  due  to  better  management  of  their  hogs  on 
the  more  successful  farms  is  because  of  the  following  conditions.  The 
average  figures  for  the  group  show  that  the  better  farms  were  obtaining 
one  pig  more  per  litter  than  was  being  obtained  on  the  less  successful 
farms.  Also  the  practice  of  raising  two  litters  of  pigs  a year  from  each 
brood  sow  was  more  common  on  the  more  successful  farms.  On  the  low 
income  farms  55  per  cent  of  the  operators  were  securing  two  litters  of 
pigs  a year  from  each  brood  sow,  while  on  the  high  income  farms  87  per 
cent  of  the  operators  were  getting  two  litters  of  pigs  from  each  brood  sow 
kept.  Further,  losses  from  disease  amounting  to  17.3  per  cent  were  found 
on  the  farms  making  the  low  incomes  and  6.4  per  cent  for  the  farms  making 
the  high  incomes.  (Table  8.) 

Three  recommendations  for  this  region  may  be  made,  based  on  the 
study  of  this  group  of  farmers.  First,  with  less  than  $5000  capital  don’t 
buy,  but  rent  enough  ground  to  employ  men  and  horses  effectively.  Sec- 
ond, pay  more  attention  to  wheat  yields  while  growing  a larger  acreage  of 
crops.  Third,  take  every  precaution  to  prevent  losses  from  disease  among 
hogs,  and  practice  the  two  litter  system  of  raising  hogs. 

FARMERS  POSSESSING  BETWEEN  $5000  AND  $20,000  CAPITAL 

In  studying  the  farmers  in  this  area  possessing  from  $5000  to  $20,000 
capital,  some  interesting  comparisons  are  found.  First,  of  all  farmers  in 

Table  7. — Acres  oe  Crops  Tended  Per  Work  Animal 


Group  I. 

Acres  per  horse 

High  income  class 
19.5 

Low  income 
15.9 

Group  II. 

Acres  per  horse 

14.1 

10.6 

Group  III. 

Acres  per  horse 

13.9 

15.6 

Group  IV. 

Acres  per  horse 

20.8 

14.8 

Table  8. — Showing  Comparative  Hog  Losses  and  Pigs  Per  Sow 


Group  I. 

High  income 

class  

Percentage  loss  of  hogs 
raised  and  bought 
Per  cent 
6.4 

Pigs  per  sow 
7.1 

Low  income 

class 

17.3 

6.2 

Group  II. 

High  income 

class 

11.0 

9.1 

Low  income 

class 

46.0 

8.0 

Group  III. 

High  income 

class 

15.0 

8.8 

Low  income 

class 

31.5 

9.0 

Group  IV. 

High  income 

class 

8.0 

9.0 

Low  income 

class 

30.5 

6.8 

Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 


9 


this  group,  all  but  five  owned  at  least  a part  of  the  land  they  farmed.  There 
are  61  farmers  in  this  group.  When  they  are  separated  into  two  classes,  as 
the  first  group  were  separated,  30  of  them  are  found  to  be  making  less 
than  $100  labor-income  and  31  more  than  $100.  The  30  farmers  made  a 
labor-income  of  $-381  while  the  31  more  successful  made  an  average  labor- 
income  of  $930.  Fourteen  of  the  more  successful  farmers  rented  additional 
land  while  11  of  the  less  successful  rented  additional  land.  This  indicated 
that  men  with  this  amount  of  capital  are  undecided  as  to  whether  it  is 
advisable  to  rent  more  land.  However,  the  high  income  class  owned  61 
acres  of  land  while  the  low  income  class  owned  86^  acres.  The  average 
amount  rented  by  the  high  income  class  was  82  acres  while  those  in  the 
low  income  class  rented  an  average  of  37  acres.  Table  9 shows  the  results 
obtained  in  both  the  low  income  and  high  income  classes  by  the  renting  of 
this  additional  land.  The  men  in  the  low  income  class  who  rented  addi- 
tional land  practically  doubled  the  size  of  their  farms  and  reduced  their 
minus  labor  income  from  $434  to  $225.  Three  of  the  four  farmers  in  this 
class  who  made  as  much  as  5 per  cent  on  their  investment  were  among 
those  who  rented  additional  land.  They  owned  almost  exactly  the  same 
acreage  as  those  who  did  not  rent  but  increased  their  holdings  to  a more 
economical  unit  by  renting  some  additional  land  and  increased  their  farm- 
income  by  more  than  $200.  In  the  high  income  class  the  men  who  rented 
additional  land  increased  their  income  thereby  more  than  $1000.  Those  in 
this  class  not  renting  additional  land  made  a labor-income  of  $428.  Those 
renting  additional  land  increased  their  holdings  thereby  from  42  acres  to 
219  acres  which  gave  them  a farm  of  economical  size  and  a labor  income 
of  $1488.  As  was  stated  before,  the  men  in  this  group  apparently  are  not 
convinced  that  they  should  rent  additional  land.  However,  the  resulting 
effect  on  the  labor-income  should  convince  the  most  doubtful. 

There  is  only  $1600  difference  in  the  amount  of  capital  owned  by  each 
class.  In  determining  where  this  capital  is  invested,  it  is  found  (Table  10) 
that  the  low  income  class  has  $3000  more  invested  in  land  than  does  the 
high  income  class.  This  larger  investment  in  land  by  the  low  income  class 
greatly  handicaps  them  in  the  matter  of  working  capital.  They  have  only 
17  per  cent  of  their  total  capital  as  working  capital  while  the  more  success- 
ful farmers  have  31  per  cent  of  their  capital  with  which  to  operate.  This 
will  eventually  mean  less  live  stock,  poor  equipment  and  less  efficient  work 
on  the  farm  thus  handicapped.  The  high  income  class  have  two  and  one- 

Tabee  9. — Practice  and  Effect  of  Renting  More  Land  in  Group  II  ( Capital — 
$5000  to  $20,000) 

High  income  class  Low  income  class 


Factor 

Those  rent- 
ing more 
land 

Non- 

renters 

Those  rent- 
ing more 
land 

Non- 

renters 

Number  of  farms 

14 

17 

11 

19 

Average  labor-income 

$1488. 

$428 

$-225 

$-434 

Average  acres  owned 
Additional  land 

42 

76.5 

85.8 

86.6 

rented  

177.2 

87.5 

10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


half  times  as  much  money  invested  in  other  live  stock  as  do  the  low  income 
class.  In  machinerj'  investment  there  is  little  difference.  The  low  income 
class  have  about  $200  more  in  feed,  seed,  etc. 

The  high  income  class  grow  one-third  more  corn  than  do  the  low 
income  class.  Otherwise  there  is  not  much  difference  in  the  cropping  sys- 
tems. The  low  income  class  get  a little  better  wheat  yield  while  the  high 
income  class  get  a little  better  corn  jdeld.  The  high  income  class  get  about 
40  per  cent  more  work  from  each  work  horse  than  do  the  low  income  class 
(Table  7).  At  the  same  time  they  feed  two-thirds  as  much  feed  for  each 
unit  of  live  stock  kept.  (Table  11.) 

The  difference  in  returns  from  live  stock  is  made  up  almost  entirely  by 
hogs  and  cattle.  The  low  income  class  failed  to  break  even  with  both  hogs 
and  cattle,  while  the  high  income  class  made  a gain  on  all  classes  of  stock 
except  sheep.  A considerable  portion  of  the  gain  in  the  high  income  class 
is  due  to  more  economical  feeding  and  fewer  losses  from  cholera  among 
their  hogs.  The  low  income  class,  in  addition  to  feeding  50  per  cent  more 
feed  to  each  animal  unit,  lost  nearE  one-half  of  the  pigs  farrowed,  and  the 
number  of  pigs  raised  per  sow  was  less  than  on  the  high  income  farms. 


Table  10. — Distribution  oe  Capital  in  Group  II  ( Capital — $5000  to  $20,000) 


Capital  in — 

High  income  class 

Low  income  class 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

of  total 

of  total 

Land  

$8,566 

69.2 

$11,644 

83.2 

Work  stock  

789 

6.4 

746 

5.0 

Other  live  stock  

2.582 

20.8 

1.039 

7.9 

Machinery  

363 

2.9 

274 

1.9 

Miscellaneous  

94 

0.7 

284 

2.0 

Total  

...  $12,394 

$13,987 

Value  of  the  land 

rented  

..  $11,930 

$ 4,457 

Table  11. — Size  oe  the  Important 
With  Percentage 

Enterprises  on  the  Farms 
Effect  on  Labor  Income 

of  Group  II, 

Enterprise 

High 

income 

class 

Low 

income 

class 

Dollars 

differ- 

ence 

Per  cent 
effect  on 
difference 
in  income 
Per  cent 

Acres  of  corn  

41.9 

30.8 

$576 

40.6 

Acres  of  wheat  

26.6 

24.4 

0 

0.0 

Animal  units  in  cows  

1.6 

1.3 

158 

11.1 

Animal  units  in  steers.... 

11.6 

1.5 

189 

13.3 

Animal  units  in  hogs 

12.8 

3.7 

371 

26.2 

Animal  units  in  sheep.... 

7 

.2 

*-61 

-4.0 

Animal  units  in  poultry 

1.2 

1.5 

117 

8.3 

Miscellaneous  

70 

4.3 

Feed  fed  per  animal  unit 
Difference  in  labor- 
income  

$41 

$68 

$1,420 

The  high  income  class  lost  on  sheep,  compared  to  the  low  income  class. 


Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 


11 


The  principal  differences  in  these  classes  seem  to  be  first,  on  the  high 
income  farms  a much  lower  investment  per  acre  with  equal  yields;  second, 
uneconomical  feeding  practices  on  the  low  income  farms  with  heavy  losses 
from  hogs. 

FARMERS  HAVING  FROM  $20,000  TO  $40,000  CAPITAL 

Forty-one  farmers  were  farming  with  a total  owned  capital  of  from 
$20,000  to  $40,000.  Seventeen  of  these  made  a labor-income  of  more  than 
$100  while  the  remainder  failed  to  make  as  much  as  $100  above  interest  on 
investment.  The  average  of  the  24  remaining  farms  was  $-794.04.  The 
average  income  of  the  17  successful  farmers  was  $705,  making  a total  differ- 
ence in  the  two  groups  of  $1499. 

In  the  low  income  class  of  this  group  five  farmers  rented  additional 
land  while  six  in  the  high  income  class  rented  more  land.  The  result  of 
renting  additional  land  is  shown  in  Table  12.  The  farmers  in  neither  class 
were  able  to  make  the  renting  of  additional  land  profitable.  The  results 
show  that  the  operators  who  were  renting  additional  land  did  this  in  an 
attempt  to  increase  the  size  of  their  business.  The  result  on  their  labor- 
income  was  not  very  satisfactory.  They  had  a fairly  good-sized  business 
to  begin  with  altho  it  was  not  as  large  as  that  of  the  non-renters.  A few 
of  the  farmers  in  the  non-renting  class  let  out  some  land.  This  was  not  of 
great  importance  however. 

In  this  group,  as  in  the  second,  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the 
investment  in  live  stock,  the  high  income  class  having  51  per  cent  more 
money  invested  in  productive  live  stock  than  did  the  low  income  class.  A 
considerably  larger  portion  of  the  capital  of  the  low-income  class  was  in- 
vested in  land.  From  the  standpoint  of  making  a labor-income,  this  was 
not  so  desirable,  as  the  difference  in  capital  invested  in  land  was  nearly 
$2000  (Table  13).  Considering  the  fact  that  their  total  capital  was  prac- 
tically the  same  this  $2000  difference  must  be  taken  out  of  working  capital. 
The  sacrifice  was  made  in  machinery  and  live  stock  other  than  work  stock. 
This  resulted  in  a greater  expense  of  production  on  the  part  of  the  low 
income  class  and  affected  materially  their  returns  from  live  stock. 

The  outstanding  difference  in  results  obtained  in  the  two  classes  was 
in  handling  hogs  and  cattle.  More  than  70  per  cent  of  the  $1500  difference 
in  labor-income  can  be  traced  directly  to  hogs  and  cattle.  The  gains  from 


Table  12. — Practice  and  Eeeect  oe  Renting  More  Land  in  Group  III. 
( Capital — $20,000  to  $40,000) 


High  income 

class 

Low  income 

class 

Factor 

Those  rent- 

Non- 

Those rent- 

Non- 

ing more 

renters 

ing  more 

renters 

land 

land 

Number  of  farms 

6 

11 

5 

19 

Average  labor-income 

$486 

$870 

$-1206 

$-713 

Average  acres  owned 

• 147 

184 

171.6 

219 

Average  acres  rented 
Average  acres  rented 

118.2 

98.6 

out  

10 

81.0 

12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


feeding  cattle  and  hogs  were  approximately  $600  on  the  high  income  farms 
while  on  the  low  income  farms  a loss  of  practically  the  same  amount  was 
incurred.  This  was  largely  due  to  more  economical  feeding  by  the  high 
income  farmer.  They  fed  only  about  60  per  cent  as  much  feed  per  animal 
as  did  the  low  income  class.  The  low  income  class  kept  nearly  twice  as 
many  horses  and  mules  as  did  the  high  income  class,  thus  making  the  feed 
and  all  farm  operations  cost  considerably  more  (Table  7).  There  was  not 
much  difference  in  the  cropping  systems  followed.  The  acreage  of  wheat 
was  almost  the  same.  The  low  income  class  grew  a few  more  acres  of 
corn  and  obtained  exactly  the  same  yield  of  corn.  The  high  income  class 
obtained  three  bushels  more  wheat  an  acre  than  did  the  low  income  class. 
This,  combined  with  a lower  cost  of  production  because  of  cheaper  horse 
labor  gave  them  a gain  over  the  low  income  class  in  crop  production. 
Thirty-five  per  cent  of  the  difference  can  be  traced  directly  to  steer  feed- 
ing. Nine  of  the  24  farmers  in  the  low  income  class  had  ten  or  more 
steers  each.  Only  one  of  these  steer  feeders  was  using  silage.  Twelve  of 
the  more  successful  farmers  were  handling  steers.  Six  of  this  number  were 
feeding  either  silage  or  grass.  Difference  in  buying  and  selling  prices  or 
the  managers’  skill  in  trading  was  a bigger  factor  than  the  difference  in 
feeding  practices.  The  average  labor-income  of  the  nine  steer  feeders  in 
the  low  income  class  was  $-936.  Those  not  handling  steers  in  this  class 


Pasture  land  is  not  working  at  full  capacity  because  of  poor  care  given  it 


Table  13. — Distribution  of  Capital  in  Group  III.  ( Capital — $20,000  to  $40,000) 


Capital  in — 

High 

income  class 
Per  cent 
of  total 

Low 

income  class 
Per  cent 
of  total 

Land  

$24,427 

83.1 

$26,254 

88.2 

Work  stock  

1,171 

3.7 

1,062 

3.5 

Other  live  stock 

2,963 

10.0 

1,900 

6.7 

Machinery  

498 

1.7 

• 

383 

1.2 

Miscellaneous  

321 

1.5 

141 

.4 

Total  

Value  of  the  land 

$29,380 

$29,740 

rented  

$ 6,586 

$ 2,758 

Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 


13 


made  $-744.  In  the  high  income  class  the  12  who  were  feeding  steers  made 
>713  labor-income  and  those  who  were  not  feeding  steers  made  $786.  How- 
ever, the  six  farmers  who  were  feeding  silage  or  grass  made  labor-incomes 
of  $887. 

Thirty-one  per  cent  of  the  difference  , in  incomes  of  the  two  classes 
was  due  to  difference  in  success  with  hogs.  The  low  income  class  had  an 
average  hog  loss  of  31.05  per  cent  while  the  high  income  class  lost  only 
15  per  cent.  The  difference  in  loss  totaled  $171.  The  remainder  of  the 
$465  difference  in  hog  profits  in  the  two  classes  was  due  principally  to 
feeding  practices.  The  number  of  pigs  saved  per  sow  in  both  classes  was 
practically  the  same.  (Table  8.) 

The  problems  indicated  in  the  study  of  this  group  are  practically  the 


One  of  the  better  managed  pastures  in  the  area  studied.  Pays  a lower  rate  of  interest  than 
crop  land  but  conserves  fertility  and  is  helping  solve  a vexatious  labor  problem 


Table  14. — Size  of  the  Important  Enterprises  on  the  Farms  of  Group  III 
With  Percentage  Effect  on  Labor-Income 


Enterprise  High 

income 
class 

Acres  of  corn  54.3 

Acres  of  wheat  40. 

Animal  units  in  cows....  2.9 

Animal  units  in  steers....  25.2 

Animal  units  in  hogs 13.1 

Animal  units  in  sheep....  

Animal  units  in  poultry  1.3 

Miscellaneous  

Feed  fed  per  animal  unit  $42.50 

Difference  in  labor-  . 

income  


Low 

Dollars 

Per  cent 

income 

differ- 

effect on 

class 

ence 

difference 

in  income 

62.7 

t$-90. 

16.6 

40.8 

340 

2.0 

223 

14.8 

8.9 

529 

35.0 

8.6 

465 

31.0 

-7 

* 

1.3 

17. 

1.1 

22. 

1.5 

$72.00 

$1499. 

*Loss  of  less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent. 
tCorn  was  more  profitable  on  the  low  income  farms. 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


same  as  in  group  two,  except  that  the  renting  of  additional  land  is  not  so 
important  while  the  retaining  of  enough  capital  as  operating  capital  is  im- 
portant. As  in  group  two,  the  low  income  farmers  are  not  feeding  eco- 
nomically and  they  are  apparently  not  so  skilled  in  buying  and  selling.  The 
problems  in  regard  to  cropping  systems  correspond  generally  to  those  of 
group  two. 

FARMERS  FARMING  WITH  OVER  $40,000  CAPITAL 

This  group  comprised  the  44  largest  land  owners  in  this  area.  One 
naif  of  this  group  were  making  more  than  $100  labor-income  or  an  annual 
labor-income  of  $2486.  The  other  half  of  the  group  made  an  average  labor 
income  of  $-1927.  In  the  low  income  class  ten  farmers  let  out  part  of 
their  land  while  three  of  the  group  rented  some  additional  land.  One  of 
the  three  also  appears  in  the  group  of  those  who  rented  out  land.  The 
effect  of  this  renting  and  letting  out  of  land  is  shown  In  Table  15.  In  the 
high  income  class  seven  let  out  land  while  seven  rented  some  additional 
land.  Two  of  the  seven  who  let  out  land  in  turn  rented  some  additional 
land.  The  number  of  acres  operated  in  each  class  is  about  the  same.  In 
studying  the  amount  of  capital  devoted  to  various  investments  not  a great 
deal  of  difference  is  found  (Table  16).  The  more  successful  farmers  are 
using  about  $1000  more  in  live  stock  other  than  work  stock.  However,  this 
is  not  of  so  great  importance  in  that  the  less  successful  have  more  than 
$5000  so  invested.  The  reason  for  the  difference  in  income  must  be  looked 
for  in  other  quarters. 

The  major  part  of  this  difference  in  income  seems  to  be  in  the  selling 
of  crops  and  the  feeding  of  steers.  The  high  income  class  grows  nearly 
twice  as  many  acres  of  crops  as  does  the  low  income  class  (Table  17). 
They  have  120  acres  of  corn  as  compared  to  the  64  acres  of  the  low  income 
class,  and  98  acres  of  wheat  as  compared  to  51  for  the  low  income  class. 
They  have  nearly  20  per  cent  more  cattle  and  30  per  cent  more  hogs  than 
does  the  low  income  class.  Each  work  horse  does  one-half  more  field 
work  on  the  farms  of  the  high  income  class  (Table  7).  Yields  of  crops 
were  practically  the  same  in  both  classes.  In  fact  the  low  income  class 
received  a slightly  larger  yield  of  corn.  Turning  to  the  live-stock  figures 
it  is  found  that  nearly  32  per  cent  of  the  difference  in  the  incomes  of  the 
two  classes  is  due  to  steer  feeding. 

Table  15. — Renting  Policy  on  Farms  Having  Over  $40,000  Capital  and  the 


Effect  on 

Income 

High  income  class 

Low  income  class 

Factor 

Those  rent- 
ing more 
land 

Non- 

renters 

Those  rent- 
ing more 
land 

Non- 

renters 

Number  of  farms  

5 

17 

3 

19 

Average  labor-income 

$3,935 

$2,135 

$-7,974 

$-1,110 

Average  acres  owned 

245.6 

447. 

353.3 

298.1 

Average  acres  rented 
Average  acres  rented 
out  

166. 

101.2 

406.6 

70.8 

Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 


15 


In  both  classes  several  farmers  maintained  breeding  herds  of  beef 
cows.  Five  in  the  low  income  class  kept  an  average  of  15  cows  while  eight 
in  the  high  income  class  kept  an  average  of  17  cows.  The  percentage  of 
calves  for  the  year  on  the  low  income  farms  was  65  and  on  the  high  income 
farms,  80.  This  percentage  is  calves  saved  and  does  not  include  the  entire 
number  of  those  dropped.  Thirteen  of  the  low  income  farms  sold  one  or 
more  cars  of  fat  steers  while  19  of  the  high  income  farms  made  such  sales. 
Twelve  of  the  low  income  farms  had  feeders  on  hand  at  the  end  of  the 
year  but  there  were  only  two  silos  filled  on  these  12  farms.  Twelve  farms 
in  the  high  income  class  had  feeders  on  hand  with  ten  filled  silos.  The 
farmers  handling  steers  in  the  low  income  class  made  an  average  income 
of  $-2880.  The  nirie  not  handling  steers,  $-1365.  The  19  handling  steers 
in  the  high  income  class  made  $2700  labor-income  while  the  three  not 
handling  steers  made  $1602. 

The  farmers  in  this  group  are  facing  some  very  serious  problems. 
First,  some  of  them  are  leaving  most  of  their  land  in  grass.  This  may  be 
due  to  labor  shortage  or  it  may  be  due  to  a greater  or  less  degree  of  re- 
tirement on  the  part  of  the  farmer  because  of  old  age  or  the  accumulation 

Table  16. — Investment  Distribution  and  Amount  Used  Thru  Renting  on 
Farms  oe  Group  IV.  ( Capital  over  $40,000) 


Investment  in — 


Land  

Work  stock  

Other  live  stock 

Machinery  

Miscellaneous  

Total  capital  

Value  of  the  land 
rented  


High  income  class 
per  cent 
of  total 


$54,662 

83.9 

1,764 

2.8 

6,467 

9.9 

659 

1.3 

1,572 

$65,124 

2.4 

$ 6,179 

Low  income  class 


Per  cent 
of  total 

$54,450 

87.0 

1,261 

2.0 

5,397 

8.6 

563 

0.8 

891 

1.4 

$62,562 

$ 5,673 

Table  17. — Comparison  oe  Major  Enterprises  in  Group  IV  With  Percentage 
Eeeect  on  Difeerence  in  Gains 


Acres  of  corn  

Acres  of  wheat  

Animal  units  in  cows.... 

Animal  unit  in  steers 

Animal  units  in  sheep.... 

Animal  units  in  hogs 

Animal  units  in  poultry 

Miscellaneous  

Feed  fed  per  animal  unit 
Difference  in  labor 
income  


t High 

Low 

income 

income 

class 

class 

120.8 

64.4 

97.7 

51.0 

3.3 

2.3 

59.0 

52. 

8.3 

2 

23.7 

16.7 

1.5 

1.0 

$47.00 

$55.50 

Dollars 

Percentage 

difference  in 

difference 

net  income 

Per  cent 

$1,139. 

25.8 

572. 

13.0 

*-11. 

-0.2 

1,403. 

31.7 

243. 

5.5 

947. 

21.4 

64. 

1.5 

58. 

1.3 

$4,414.00 


The  high  income  class  lost  on  cows,  as  compared  to  the  low  income  class. 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


of  enough  money  to  live  on  comfortably  without  hard  work.  A problem 
closely  related  to  this  is  the  matter  of  renting  out  land.  Many  of  the 
farmers  in  this  group  have  rented  out  so  much  land  that  they  do  not 
have  enough  left  to  operate  economically.  Under  some  circumstances 
their  income  from  land  rented  out  will  be  greater  than  if  they  farm  the  land 
themselves.  Another  factor  of  great  importance  with  these  cattle  feeders 
is  the  use  of  silage  to  cheapen  rations  for  steers.  Also  the  matter  of  skill 
in  buying  and  selling  has  a great  deal  to  do  with  their  success.  These 
farmers  also  had  the  same  problem  with  hogs  as  did  groups  two  and  three 
combined;  namely,  the  matter  of  getting  more  pigs  per  sow  each  year  and 
reducing  losses  from  various  diseases.  The  problem  of  economic  use  of 
horse  labor  is  really  included  in  the  problem  of  farming  or  not  farming 
their  land. 


On  the  larger  owned  farms  cattle  feeding  is  the  principal  method  of  marketing  the  corn  crop 


UNDER  PRESENT  PRICE  CONDITIONS 

The  foregoing  work  was  done  under  1914  price  conditions,  which  ob- 
viously would  not  apply  to  those  of  1920.  To  translate  these  results  in 
terms  of  1920  prices  certain  changes  must  be  made.  Table  18  shows  how 
prices  and  cost  of  production  have  increased  since  1914,  taking  the  average 
prices  and  costs  of  1910  to  1914  as  a base,  or  100  per  cent.  The  cost  of 
growing  corn  has  increased  from  100  per  cent  in  1910-14  to  165.5  per  cent 
in  1919,  while  the  average  farm  price  of  corn  has  increased  230  per  cent. 
With  wheat  the  1920  price  has  increased  a very  little  more  than  cost  of 
production,  while  with  hogs  and  beef  the  increase  has  not  nearly  kept  pace 
with  the  cost  of  production.  Labor  incomes  have  increased  since  1914 
.because  with  a higher  price  scale  farm  labor  receives  better  wages,  and 
labor  of  production  is  figured  at  these  wages.  Also,  farmers  decreased 
their  activity  along  less  profitable  lines  and  increased  along  those  which 
are  better  paying.  Thus  they  are  cutting  down  on  cattle  and  hogs  and 
increasing  corn  and  wheat.  The  labor-income  made  in  this  area,  assuming 
1920  prices,  is  shown  in  Table  19. 

Another  factor  which  would  affect  results  is  the  enormous  increase 
in  the  price  of  land.  The  capitalization  of  farms  in  the  area  was  $141  an 
acre  in  1914.  In  1919  the  average  capitalizatoin  was  $198  an  acre.  Clearly, 
computing  the  labor-income  on  the  latter  basis  will  lower  materially  the 
results  obtained.  The  effect  of  this  factor  is  also  shown  in  Table  19.  This 


Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 


17 


represents  what  a man  can  expect  who  buys  his  farm  under  1919  price 
conditions  and  pays  5 per  cent  on  his  money.  The  era  of  greatest  profit  for 
farmers  has  clearly  passed.  Increased  land  values  have  more  than  made 
up  for  a high  product  price  scale.  For  the  man  who  rents  all  the  land  he 
farms,  if  the  share  of  the  crop  charged  him  has  not  been  raised,  he  is  still 
in  a good  position.  Rent  rates  tho  slower  in  adjusting  themselves  will 
generally  take  care  of  this,  however. 

Table  18. — Missouri  Cost  and  Price  Index  in  1920  on  the  Basis  of  1910-14 

Figures 


Cost  of  production 
index 


*Corn  .*. 165.5 

Wheat  279.8 

Pork  226.5 

Beef  238.0 

*U.  S.  Price  Index  for  All  Crops  and  Live  Stock. 


Price  index 


230.0 

281.0 
212.1 
218.0 
234. 3f 


*These  figures  are  for  1919  as  1920  figures  cannot  yet  be  computed.  The  remaining 
ones  are  for  1920. 

tTaken  from  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1920. 


Table  19. — Labor-Incomes  as  Influenced  by  Rise  in  Prices  and  in  Land 

Values 


In  1914 

*At  1919  Prices 

*At  1919  Prices 

with  1914  Land 

with  1919  Land 

Values 

Values 

Group  I. — 

High  labor  income 

$1,115.46 

$2,185.30 

$2,185.30 

Low  labor  income 

210.36 

401.78 

387.06 

Group  II. — 

High  labor  income 

$1,065.37 

$2,013.55 

$1,395.63 

Low  labor  income 

354.39 

-212.63 

-889.51 

Group  III — 

High  labor  income 

$ 705.83 

$1,941.03 

$ 225.86 

Low  labor  income 

-794.04 

-341.43 

-1,754.82 

Group  IV. — 

High  labor  income 

$2,486.36 

$5,668.90 

$2,113.40 

Low  labor  income 

-1,927.43 

-1,908.15 

-3,719.93 

*These  figures  assume  the  same  system  of  farming  in  1919  as  in  1914.  In  most  cases 
the  system  has  been  modified.  Wheat  and  hogs  were  increased  materially  and  other  opera- 
tions were  reduced.  Farmers  generally  modify  their  system  to  some  extent  to  meet  changed 
price  conditions. 


With  this  comparison  of  present  day  conditions  with  those  of  1914,  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  strong  and  weak  practices  of  a few  exceptional  farms 
in  each  class  is  given.  These  comparisons  show  special  evidence  of  skill 
or  lack  of  skill  in  management  which  averages  in  the  preceding  tables  could 
not  show.  Obviously  it  would  be  impossible  to  use  in  general  tables  any- 
thing but  averages  of  groups  or  classes  so  that  these  few  farms  selected 
because  of  outstanding  features  will  show  more  clearly  individuality  in 
operators. 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


Group  I.  Low  Incomes. 

No.  1.  Labor  Income  $458.  Of  27  acres,  20  cash-rented  for  $5  an  acre. 
Receipts  from  working  out  were  double  the  average.  Receipts  from  eggs 
were  double  the  average.  For.ty-bushel  corn  yield  on  21  acres.  Kept  only 
one  sow  to  raise  meat. 

No.  2.  Labor  Income  $575.  Of  41  acres,  40  were  in  corn.  Gave  two- 
thirds  for  rent,  landlord  furnishing  land,  machinery,  wrork  stock,  and  a 
milk  cow.  Forty-eight-bushel  corn  yield  on  40  acres.  Kept  only  one  sow 
to  raise  meat. 

No.  3.  Labor  Income  $511.  Of  90  acres,  82  are  tillable  and  all  in  corn. 
Gave  half  of  corn  for  rent.  Receipts  from  working  out  twice  the  average. 
Forty-one-bushel  corn  yield  on  82  acres.  Fed  no  hogs;  bought  hogs  to 
butcher. 

No.  4.  Labor  Income  $-969.  Of  370  acres,  120  in  pasture.  Kept  18  to 
20  cows  to  raise  calves.  Fed  out  cattle  but  no  hogs.  Even  bought  hog  to 
butcher.  Corn  all  fed  out,  none  sold.  Farm  living  for  6,  $1148. 

Group  I.  High  Incomes 

No.  5.  Labor  Income  $1532.  Size,  120  acres,  all  rented.  One  hundred 
and  five  acres  in  corn  at  one-half  rent.  Receipt  from  working  out  five 
times  the  average.  Fifty-one-bushel  corn  yield  on  105  acres.  Kept  one 
sow.  Ninety-six  per  cent  receipts  from  sale  of  crops. 

No.  6.  Labor  Income  $1122.  Size,  120  acres,  all  rented.  Horse  trad- 
ing and  handling  of  purebred  horses  accounts  for  extra  income. 

No.  7.  Labor  Income  $749.  Size,  240  acres,  all  rented.  Lost  88  head 
of  hogs  with  the  cholera. 

No.  8.  Labor  Income  $776.  Size,  240  acres,  all  rented.  Lost  24  head 
of  hogs  with  the  cholera.  Had  26  acres  of  wheat  damaged  by  fly  so  that 
it  wasn’t  worth  cutting. 

No.  9.  Labor  Income  $3225.  Size,  327  acres,  all  rented.  In  crops,  272 
acres;  165  in  corn,  95  in  wheat,  and  12  in  timothy.  The  165  acres  of  corn 
averaged  50  bushels.  The  95  acres  of  wheat  averaged  20  bushels.  Seventy- 
five  and  three-tenths  per  cent  receipts  from  sale  of  crops.  Better  produc- 
ing cows  and  poultry. 

Group  II.  Low  Incomes 

No.  10.  Labor  Income.  $-548.  Size,  70  acres,  owned.  Only  12  in  corn, 
30  acres  in  wheat.  Kept  five  head  of  work  stock,  two  cows,  one  sow,  and 
thirty  hens. 

No.  11.  Labor  Income  $-798.  Size,  80  acres,  owned.  Had  in  no  corn, 
bought  all  feed.  Only  14  acres  in  wheat.  Sixty-four  acres  out  of  80  in 
pasture  and  land  valued  at  $150  an  acre.  Lost  10  steers  on  way  to  market. 
Loss  $300  to  $350  above  $400  insurance  received. 

Group  II.  High  Incomes 

No.  12.  Labor  Income  $799.  Size,  38V2  acres,  owned.  Twelve  acres 
corn  averaged  50  bushels  to  the  acre.  Two  acres  melons,  1 acre  raspber- 
ries, 2V2  acres  strawberries.  Teaches  school  part  of  the  year. 

No.  13.  Labor  Income  $840.  Size,  40  acres,  owned.  Stock  buyer  and 
trader.  All  land  in  pasture.  Makes  money  trading  rather  than  farming 


Influence  of  Capital  on  Farm  Organization 


19 


No.  14.  Labor  Income  $1980.  Size,  160  acres,  owned  80  acres.  Of 
this  150  in  crops;  50  in  clover  and  timothy.  Fifty-bushel  corn  yield  on  40 
acres.  Keeps  about  500  hens.  Sales  from  poultry  near  $700.  Reached  a 
good  September  market  with  steers. 

No.  15.  Labor  Income  $6609.  Size,  400  acres,  all  rented  for  two  per 
cent  on  land  investment.  One  hundred  and  fifty  acres  in  corn.  Kept  40 
brood  sows  and  bought  over  300  head  of  hogs.  Used  silage  in  feeding. 

No.  16.  Labor  Income  $705.  Size,  440  acres,  all  rented.  Giving  one- 
half  on  all  crop  land  and  $5  an  acre  for  pasture.  On  160  acres  got  15  bush- 
els of  wheat  an  acre;  2 bushels  an  acre  less  than  average  of  best  farms. 
Loss  of  hogs,  31.5  per  cent  of  number  produced. 

Group  III.  Low  Incomes 

No.  17.  Labor  Income  $-1034.  Owned  198  acres.  Rented  out  189 
acres.  Rents  out  all  crop  land  for  half.  Too  old  to  do  much  farming. 
Kept  3 head  of  work  stock  just  to  drive. 

No.  18.  Labor  Income  $-1144.  Owned  180  acres.  Rented  out  80  acres 
Lost  all  hogs  with  cholera.  Rents  out  corn  and  wheat  land  at  one-half. 
Old  man  to  be  farming. 

No.  19.  Labor  Income  $-3160.  Owned  160  acres  and  rented  208  acres, 
paying  $6.50  an  acre  for  land  rented,  one-half  of  which  was  used  for  pas- 
ture. Only  crop  in,  160  acres  of  corn.  One  hundred  and  ninety-six  acres 
in  pasture.  Straight  corn  and  hay  feeding. 

Group  III.  High  Incomes 

No.  20.  Labor  Income  $2004.  Size,  150  acres,  owned.  Close  to  town 
and  run  as  a dairy  farm  selling  mostly  whole  milk.  Better  than  average 
yielding  cows.  A 35-bushel  wheat  crop  in  1914. 

No.  21.  Labor  Income  $3082.  Size,  180  acres,  owned.  Exceptionally 
good  buy  made  on  nearly  100  head  of  steers  that  gained  better  than  average, 
accounts  for  exceptional  showing.  Other  returns  ordinary. 

No.  22.  Labor  Income  $353.  Size,  345  acres.  Owned  200  acres.  Got 
only  10-bushel  wheat  yield.  Got  only  about  one-half  of  pig  crop  from  30 
sows. 

Group  IV.  Low  Incomes 

No.  23.  Labor  Income  $-1293.  Size,  310  acres,  owned.  Rented  out 
215  acres;  80  at  $5.50  an  acre  cash,  135  at  one-half  share  rent,  the  latter  in 
corn  and  wheat.  Had  $200  an  acre  land.  Tenant  made  a crop  of  26  bushels 
corn  to  the  acre  and  7 bushels  wheat  to  the  acre.  Lost  one  crop  of  pigs 
with  cholera. 

No.  24.  Labor  Income  $-4069.  Owned  310  acres.  Rented  out  80  acres 
on  shares  of  one-half  the  corn.  Had  $200  land.  Wheat  made  only  11 
bushels.  Had  67  per  cent  of  crop  land  in  wheat.  Put  in  only  22  acres  of 
corn  himself.  Lost  by  cholera  26  shoats  out  of  100  heaji  bought,  and  lost 
all  pigs  raised  from  seven  sows  except  four  pigs  for  meat. 

No.  25.  Labor  Income  $-17271.  Owned  450  acres  and  cash-rented 
nearly  1000  acres  more.  Total  acreage  was  in  grass.  All  feed  bought,  none 
raised.  Speculated  heavily  in  live  stock.  Owned  land  valued  at  $125  and 
was  all  used  for  pasture. 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  175 


Group  IV.  High  Incomes 

No.  26.  Labor  Income  $1648.  Owned  220  acres  and  operated  it  all. 
Averaged  seven  to  eight  pigs  per  sow  for  each  of  two  litters.  Corn  yield 
38  bushels  or  well  up  with  the  average.  A 24-bushel  wheat  crop.  No  loss 
of  hogs  from  cholera. 

No.  27.  Labor  Income  $6123.  Owned  298  acres  and  rented  nearly  200 
additional.  A 25-bushel  wheat  crop.  Two  litters  of  pigs  a year,  seven  or 
eight  to  litter  from  15  to  17  sows.  No  loss  from  hog  cholera.  Hit  good 
cattle  market  in  early  September. 

No.  28.  Labor  Income  $11,137.  Owned  160  acres  and  rented  270  more. 
Stock  dealer,  buying  and  selling  much  live  stock.  Bought  all  hogs  han- 
dled. Corn  crop  50  bushels  an  acre  on  land  rented  for  cash  at  $6  an  acre. 
Seventy-six  per  cent  of  crop  land  in  corn.  From  $15,000  to  $20,000  invested 
in  live  stock  all  the  time,  or  about  as  much  as  he  had  in  his  own  land. 
Favorably  situated  for  securing  good  buys  in  live  stock. 


SUMMARY 

Men  with  less  than  $5000  capital  should  not  attempt  to  own  land  in  a 
moderate  to  high-priced  farming  section.  A better  income  will  be  realized 
by  using  all  their  capital  as  working  capital. 

Renting  a large  enough  area  to  employ  men  and  horses  efficiently  is 
important. 

In  this  area  the  more  successful  men  raise  two  litters  of  pigs  a year 
from  their  brood  sows.  They  also  hold  down  losses  from  disease. 

In  the  group  of  farms  with  from  $5000  to  $20,000  capital,  the  main 
differences  are  in  investment  and  efficiency  with  live  stock.  The  low 
income  class  kept  out  too  little  capital  as  operating  capital  and  had  too 
much  invested  per  acre  for  the  yields  they  were  getting;  while  they  were 
poorer  feeders  of  live  stock  and  had  greater  losses  from  disease  than  did 
the  more  successful. 

The  problems  confronting  men  with  from  $20,000  to  $40,000  do  not 
differ  greatly  from  those  with  $5000  to  $20,000  except  that  the  renting  of 
additional  land  is  not  important.  These  farms  are  more  strictly  hog  and 
beef-cattle  farms.  Plenty  of  working  capital  and  reforms  in  feeding  prac- 
tice are  even  more  essential  here  than  in  the  group  with  from  $5000  to 
$20,000.  Increase  in  wheat  yields  is  worth  trying  for  in  all  classes. 

On  farms  with  over  $40,000  capital  the  first  thing  noticed  is  that  those 
making  low  incomes  are  not  farming  their  land.  They  live  on  an  interest 
return  of  3 per  cent  to  4 per  cent.  Some  of  the  owners  rent  out  part  of 
their  land  and  live  on  the  rent.  The  land  they  retain  had  better  be  rented 
and  their  working  capital  loaned  out,  as  they  do  not  retain  enough  land 
to  farm  economically. 

Another  source  of  trouble  is  use  of  silage  in  cattle  feeding.  Those 
making  money  used  silage  to  cheapen  their  rations.  Skill  or  luck  in  buying 
and  selling  is  not  a small  factor  in  their  success  with  cattle. 

With  hogs,  they  need  more  pigs  per  sow,  and  the  eradication  of  cholera 
would  mean  a big  saving. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  NO.  176 


NURSERY  AND  ORCHARD 
INSECT  PESTS 

L.  Haseman 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
OCTOBER,  1920 


Fig.  1. — San  Jose  Scale;  much  enlarged,  showing  different  stages  of 
development 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

the:  curators  of  the:  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 

EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BEANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 
OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 


STATION 

October, 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.2 

R.  M.  Smith,  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedmann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  SiEVEKiNG,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  B.  Culbertson,  Jr.,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  W.  Manning,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

G.  W.  York,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

agricultural  engineering 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B.  S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumeord,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Bernard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  Edinger,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Samuel  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B^S.  in  Agr. 

D.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

S.  R.  McLane 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

JIn  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
2On  leave  of  absence. 


STAFF 

1920 

RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  GromEr,  A.  M. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

B.  H.  Frame 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

horticulture 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

| H.  F.  Major,  B.  S. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 
i W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 
R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S.,  Secretary 
Sam  B.  Shirkey,  Asst,  to  Dean 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 
Miss  Bertha  Hite,  A.  B.1  Seed  Testing 
Laboratory 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


Since  the  establishment  of  the  Plant  Inspection  Service  by  the  Legislature 
in  1913  the  work  of  control  of  nursery  and  orchard  insects  has  been  given 
special  attention.  The  San  Jose  scale,  which  since  the  early  90’s  has  been  re- 
sponsible for  much  of  the  loss  and  damage  to  the  fruit  industry  of  Missouri, 
was  taken  in  hand  first  of  all.  Remarkable  results  have  already  been  secured 
in  eliminating  this  pest  from  the  nurseries  of  the  state  as  well  as  from  the  im- 
portant orchard  centers.  The  various  other  less  well-known  insects  and  plant 
diseases  have  also  received  attention. 

Except  for  certain  pests  of  the  fruit  itself,  practically  every  pest  that  is 
of  importance  in  the  nursery  on  the  young  trees,  also  attacks  the  older  bearing 
trees  in  the  orchard.  For  this  reason  it  has  seemed  advisable  in  this  report  to 
deal  with  the  various  pests  and  their  control  both  in  the  orchard  and  in  the 
nursery.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  of  vital  importance  that  the  Plant  Inspection 
Service  be  maintained  and  that  adequate  provisions  be  made  to  effectively  pro- 
tect Horticulture  and  Agriculture  against  future  losses  from  insects  and  plant 
diseases.  The  problems  of  the  fruit  grower  and  nurseryman,  in  this  respect,  are 
identical,  and  to  make  the  work  most  effective  we  must  continue  to  have  close 
cooperation  between  them.  A neglected  orchard  will  endanger  a neighboring 
nursery  as  well  as  increase  the  difficulties  of  nearby  fruit  growers. 

In  this  report  the  pests  of  apple,  peach  and  other  fruits  will  be  taken  up 
separately.  Where  a pest  is  of  importance  both  in  the  orchard  and  nursery 
it  will  be  so  considered. 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  APPLE 

Apple  insects  may  be  conveniently  discussed  as  those  of  the  roots,  trunk 
and  limbs,  foliage  and  fruit.  This  method  makes  it  easy  for  a fruit  grower  or 
nurseryman  quickly  to  analyze  his  trouble. 


Apple  Root  Insects 

In  Missouri  there  is  only  one  insect  of  importance  on  the  ^oots  of  apple 
trees.  This  is  the  Root  Louse  or  Wooly  Aphis,  ( Schizoneura  lanigera).  It  is 
quite  generally  distributed  thruout  the  state,  breeding  commonly  on  apple,  haw, 
crab,  and  on  elm  foliage.  It  is  a small  reddish-brown  louse  which  usually 
keeps  its  body  covered  with  a white  cottony  secretion.  It  feeds  by  extracting 
sap  from  the  roots  and  bark  thru  a piercing  beak.  On  the  roots  this  causes 
swellings  to  form  and  on  the  trunk  and  limbs  slight  depressions. 

CoNTROi,. — In  the  nursery  it  helps  to  grow  apple  trees  in  fields  which  were 
formerly  used  for  cultivated  crops,  and  well  isolated  from  old  orchards,  neg- 
lected apple  trees,  haws,  crabs  and  elms.  Also  make  sure  that  roots  and  scions 
are  free  from  infestation  when  the  grafts  are  made.  Apple  trees  showing  the 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 

presence  of  lice  should  not  be  disposed  of  until  properly  treated.  Such  trees 
may  be  fumigated  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  as  recommended  for  San  Jose  scale 
or  the  roots  dipped  in  a solution  containing  one  part  of  40  per  cent  nicotine 
sulphate  to  500  parts  of  water.  One  and  two-year  apples  are  less  likely  to  he 
infested  than  older  trees. 

In  the  orchard  make  sure  that  the  young  trees  when  planted  are  free  from 
lice.  Use  land  that  is  not  newly  cleared  but  which  has  been  cultivated  for 
several  years.  If  possible  do  not  have  old  worthless  apple  trees,  haws  and 
elms  too  near  the  young  orchard.  For  the  first  few  years  after  setting  out  the 


Fig.  4. — Flat-headed  Ap- 
ple-tree Borer;  a,  Borer; 
b,  pupa;  d,  adult  beetle. 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


Fig.  2. — Root-louse  of  apple,  showing  typical 
root  injury  (After  Stedman) 


Fig.  3. — Round-headed  Apple-tree  Borer;  a,  Borer;  b,  pupa; 
c,  adult  beetle.  (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests  . 5 

young  orchard  scatter  tobacco  stems  or  tobacco  dust  about  the  base  of  the 
young  trees  and  work  it  into  the  soil.  On  the  large  bearing  trees  this  may 
also  be  done  but  it  is  especially  important  to  young  trees  free  from  the  louse. 

Insect  Pests  of  the  Trunk  and  Limbs 

In  this  group  are  included  some  of  the  most  vital  pests  of  apple;  such  as 
the  borers  and  scale  insects. 

Round-headed  Borer  ( Saperda  Candida). — This  pest  works  just  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  throwing  out  of  its  tunnel  sawdust-like  cuttings.  It  is 
worse  on  neglected  bearing  trees  in  the  orchard  but  also  at  times  may  appear 
on  older  apple  trees  in  the  nursery.  It  requires  three  years  to  complete  its  de- 
velopment from  egg  to  adult.  When  full  fed  the  fleshy,  whitish  grub  or  borer  is 
an  inch  long  and  as  large  around  as  a pencil.  The  tunneling  and  girdling  work 
weakens  the  tree  and  permits  rot  to  set  in. 

Control. — In  the  nursery  make  sure  that  nearby  old  trees  are  not  serving 
as  breeding  places  causing  infestation  on  the  nursery  trees.  Also  avoid  carry- 
ing over  scion  trees  or  other  unused  trees  until  they  become  sources  ot  infesta- 
tion. 

In  the  orchard  cultivate  about  the  trunks  of  the  trees  to  keep  down  grass 
and  other  rubbish  as  it  seems  to  attract  or  protect  the  pest.  Also  go  over  the 
trees  in  the  fall  and  in  the  spring  and  carefully  dig  out,  or  destroy  with  a wire, 
borers  where  present.  During  the  early  summer  months  keep  the  base  of  the 
trunks  painted  with  whitewash  to  which  enough  lime-sulphur  solution  is  added 
to  give  a distinct  odor.  In  Arkansas  asphalt  paint  applied,  at  the  temperature 
of  about  115  degrees  Centigrade,  to  trees  four  years  old  or  older  gave  good 
results.  Where  possible  it  is  cheaper  and  better  to  prevent  infestation  thru 
proper  orchard  management  than  to  clean  up  the  orchard  once  the  trees  are 
infested. 

Flat-headed  Borer  ( Chrysobothris  femorata). — This  pest  is  smaller  than 
the  round-headed  borer  and  confines  its  work  to  the  bark  and  growing  layer  of 
trunk  and  limbs.  It  is  common  on  nursery  trees  and  also  in  orchards.  As  a 
rule  it  works  where  mechanical  injury,  sunscald  or  canker  is  at  work  on  a 
tree.  The  grub  or  borer  is  whitish  in  color  and  has  the  segments  of  the  thorax 
expanded  so  as  to  appear  to  have  an  enlarged  head  which  gives  it  its  common 
name.  It  completes  its  life  cycle  in  one  year.  It  is  not  confined  to  the  apple 
tree,  which  makes  it  all  the  more  difficult  to  control. 

Control. — During  the  early  part  of  summer  examine  trees  for  signs  of 
injury  on  trunk  or  larger  limbs.  If  present  carefully  remove  borers,  disinfect 
wounds  and  paint  over  patches.  As  a precaution  keep  nursery  and  orchard  as 
far  from  woods  as  possible  and  eliminate  old  worthless  apple  trees  as  well  as 
haws  and  other  trees  from  the  vicinity  of  the  orchard. 

Shot-hole  Borer  ( Scolytus  rugulosus). — This  small  beetle  and  its  tiny 
grub  may  attack  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees  and  other  trees.  It  is  most  important 
in  the  orchard  but  on  weakened  nursery  trees  it  may  also  appear.  The  female 
beetle  makes  a tunnel  between  the  bark  and  wood  and  lays  eggs  along  either  side 
of  this.  In  time  the  small  borers  extend  their  work,  often  girdling  limbs  or  the 
trunks  of  small  trees,  causing  weakening  or  death  of  such  trees.  As  a rule  it 
is  a weakened  tree  that  is  most  likely  to  suffer  injury. 


6-  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


Control — Since  the  pest  thrives  best  in  weak  or  dying  trees  or  limbs,  keep 
all  orchard  primings  removed  from  the  orchard.  In  the  nursery  avoid  the  use 
of  left-over  trees  for  filling  draws  and  the  like  alongside  the  growing  stock. 
Remove  and  burn  trees  which  are  too  seriously  injured  by  the  pest  to  be  saved. 
In  the  orchard  promptly  prune  out  affected  limbs  and  destroy  them.  The 
regular  summer  sprays  with  arsenate  of  lead  and  lime-sulphur  for  fruit  insects 
will  tend  to  repell  this  pest  where  spraying  is  thoroly  done. 


Fig. 


5. — Shot-hole 
d,  borer; 


Borer;  a,  Adult;  b,  side  view  of  same; 
all  enlarged.  (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


d 

c,  pupa; 


San  Jose  Scale  ( Aspidiotus  perniciosus) . — This  imported  scale  insect 
is  the  most  notorious  one  that  attacks  fruit  trees.  It  came  from  the  Orient 
some  thirty  years  ago  and  has  been  in  this  state  for  about  twenty-five  years. 
It  had  much  to  do  with  the  establishment  of  State  and  Federal  Plant  Inspec- 
tion Services  and  hastened  the  day  when  regular  orchard  spraying  was  abso- 
lutely necessary.  In  thirty  years  it  has  destroyed  thousands  of  orchards  and 
has  cost  nurserymen  millions  of  dollars. 

It  is  a sap-sucking  insect  which  secretes  over  its  back  a protecting  scale  or 
armor.  The  female  gives  birth  to  the  young  and  in  a day  or  two  they  insert 
their  beak,  begin  to  extract  sap  and  to  secrete  the  protecting  armor.  The  fe- 
males never  move  from  the  point  where  they  begin  to  feed,  tho  later  the  males 
emerge  as  small  two-winged  insects.  In  from  thirty  to  forty  days  the  insect 


Fig.  6. — San  Jose  Scale;  portion  of  peach  limb  showing  scale  incrusting  it. 

Enlarged 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


7 


matures,  so  there  are  a number  of  generations  maturing  between  spring  and 
fall.  The  pest  passes  the  winter  as  a half-grown  nymph  in  the  so-called  black 
stage. 

Control. — Since  the  pest  may  be  spread  readily  in  the  young  nymph  stage 
from  orchard  to  orchard  or  to  nursery  stock  by  birds  or  other  means,  the 
State  Plant  Inspection  Service  has  done  all  in  its  power  to  eliminate  the  pest 
from  orchards  and  other  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  nurseries.  This  clean 
up  work  has  now  largely  removed  the  immediate  danger  to  the  regular  nurs- 
eries. Under  especially  favorable  seasons,  however,  the  pest  may  multiply  and 
spread  more  than  usual,  requiring  special  effort  in  the  way  of  clean-up  work. 
In  the  orchard  one  or  two  regular  dormant  sprays  will  so  reduce  it  that  it  is 
then  easily  kept  in  control.  No  one  hopes  to  absolutely  exterminate  it  once  it 


Fig.  7. — San  Jose  Scale;  blossom-end  of  apple  enlarged  slightly 
showing  scale  infestation 


becomes  well  established.  For  the  dormant  spray  use  the  regular  concentrated 
lime  sulphur  solution  which  gives  a Beaumeau  reading  on  the  hydrometer  of 
30°  to  33°,  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  in  eight  gallons  of  water.  Some  prefer 
miscible  oils  and  when  used  they  should  be  mixed  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon 
of  oil  to  twelve  gallons  of  water.  Some  report  good  results  with  dry  lime 
sulphur  used  at  the  rate  of  about  1 pound  to  4 gallons  of  water.  However, 
the  writer’s  experience  leads  him  to  believe  that  in  their  present  form  the 
brands  of  dry  lime  sulphur  will  not  control  this  pest  as  effectively  as  the  better 
brands  of  lime  sulphur  solution. 

A badly  infested  orchard  should  receive  one  application  in  November  or 
December  and  a second  one  just  as  the  buds  swell  in  the  spring.  Where  the 
infestation  is  light  the  spring  application  is  sufficient.  Select  a warm  day  when 
there  is  little  or  no  breeze.  Use  plenty  of  pressure  and  a nozzle  throwing  a 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


reasonably  fine  spray,  yet  one  which  will  penetrate  into  protected  places.  The 
spray  solution  kills  by  contact  so  each  scale  must  be  touched.  Spray  thoroughly 
therefore  and  be  sure  the  tips  of  all  twigs  are  thoroughly  coated.  Spray  all 
the  way  thru  the  tree  from  all  angles.  Blotching  of  fruit  is  often  the  first 
signs  of  infestation  the  grower  observes.  However,  other  insects  may  cause 
blotches  on  fruit  so  this  is  not  always  a sign  that  the  scale  is  present.  In  case 
of  doubt  send  twigs  and  blotched  fruit  to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
for  examination. 

In  the  nursery  the  use  of  dormant  sprays  is  not  sufficient  to  insure  against 
the  possibility  of  spread  of  scale  on  nursery  stock.  Dormant  sprays  may  con- 


Fig.  8. — San  Jose  Scale.  Spraying  infested  peach  orchard,  using  small  barrel  outfit 


trol  the  pest  but  it  is  humanly  impossible  to  hit  and  kill  every  individual.  For 
this  reason  inspection  laws  require  the  destruction  of  visibly  infested  trees  and 
the  fumigation  or  dipping  of  all  other  susceptible  trees  or  shrubs  before  dis- 
tributing them.  For  fumigation  use  an  air-tight  room  and  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas.  Subject  the  trees  to  the  gas  for  from  forty  to  sixty  minutes.  The  gas 
is  made  by  using  one  ounce  of  potassium  cyanide  98%  or  sodium  cyanide  130%, 
one  ounce  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid,  and  two  or  three  ounces  of  water  for 
each  one  hundred  cubic  feet  of  space.  If  the  stock  is  dipped,  a miscible  oil 
diluted  with  twelve  parts  of  water  has  given  best  results.  In  spite  of  the  most 
careful  work  of  inspection  and  treating  of  nursery  stock  there  is  the  chance 
that  some  scale  may  escape,  resulting  in  infestation  in  the  orchard  where  trees 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


9 


are  planted.  However,  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  recent  years  most 
new  infestations  in  orchards  come  from  other  infested  orchards  in  the  vicinity 
rather  than  on  the  young  trees  from  the  nursery. 

While  the  scale  has  done  much  injury  to  fruit  growing  it  is  now  possible  to 
control  it  very  effectively  and  in  good  orchard  management  it  is  no  longer 
feared  as  a dangerous  scourge.  The  above  discussion  of  the  pest  on  apple  holds 
true  for  other  tree  fruits  as  well. 

Other  Scale  Insects. — The  oyster  shell  scale,  the  scurfy  scale  and  the 
Forbes  scale  are  also  at  times  common  on  apple  trees  in  the  nursery  and  in  the 
orchard.  Neither  of  these,  however,  are  likely  to  cause  serious  injury  to  bear- 
ing trees.  In  the  nursery,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  undesirable  and  at  times 
decidedly  injurious.  The  scurfy  scale  has  a light-colored  flaky,  armor,  the 
oyster  shell  has  a dark  oyster-shell-shaped  armor  and  the  Forbes  a circular 
armor  with  a shiny  orange-colored  center  or  exuvae. 

Control. — In  the  propagation  of  nursery  stock  select  scions  free  from 
scales.  Where  nursery  stock  shows  infestation  do  not  use  it  in  filling  orders. 
To  most  fruit  growers  a scale  is  a scale  and  a nurseryman  does  not  want  the 
name  of  distributing  scale  infested  stock.  Dipping  nursery  stock  in  a miscible 
oil  or  fumigating  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  will  prevent  the  possibility  of 
spread  of  these  scales  on  the  stock.  In  the  orchard  where  these  scales  are 
troublesome  a dormant  spray  as  for  the  San  Jose  scale  is  helpful,  especially  for 
the  Forbes  scale  and  spring  applications  of  contact  sprays  as  for  plant  lice,  just 
when  the  young  scales  are  crawling  is  very  effective  in  controlling  the  scurfy 
and  oyster-shell  scales,  since  they  pass  the  winter  in  the  egg  stage. 

Buffalo  Tree-hopper  ( Ceresa  bubalus). — In  old  neglected  orchards  the 
bark  of  small  limbs  and  twigs  is  often  found  to  be  badly  pitted  and  roughened. 
This  is  caused  by  this  small  insect.  In  the  fall,  by  means  of  a small  drill  or 
ovipositor,  the  female  places  her  eggs  under  the  bark  and  this  causes  small  scars 
on  the  bark.  The  injury  is  similar  to  the  work  of  the  Cicada,  tho  the  punctures 
do  not  go  beyond  the  bark.  These  eggs  hatch  in  the  spring  and  the  young 
nymphs  soon  leave  the  twigs  and  feed  on  the  sap  of  herbaceous  plants,  grass 
and  the  like  about  the  orchard.  The  only  damage  done  is  due  to  the  egg  lay- 
ing and  in  severe  cases  it  may  be  considerable.  Certain  varieties  suffer  more 
than  others. 

In  the  nursery  this  injury  is  usually  slight,  tho  it  may  be  quite  noticeable 
especially  on  scion  trees  in  places  where  surrounding  conditions  are  favorable 
for  breeding. 

Control. — Where  this  pest  is  abundant  clean  culture  in  the  orchard  and 
surrounding  fields  will  help  to  check  the  pest  and  its  injury.  Repeated  mowing 
of  grass  and  weeds  in  the  orchard  will  help  where  cultivation  is  not  advisable. 

Periodical  Cicada  ( Tibicen  septendecim) . — This  peculiar  insect,  as  is  well 
known,  reappears  at  definite  intervals  in  the  form  of  broods.  One  form  re- 
appears every  thirteen  years  and  the  second  every  seventeen  years.  In  Mis- 
souri several  broods  appear,  tho  only  the  two  heavy  13-year  broods  are  of  special 
importance.  One  of  these  appeared  in  the  spring  of  1920  and  will  next  appear 
in  the  spring  of  1933.  The  second  appeared  last  in  the  spring  of  1911  and' will 
next  appear  in  the  spring  of  1924.  These  two  broods  are  sufficiently  heavy  and 
widely  distributed  as  to  cause  a certain  amount  of  damage  to  the  fruit-bearing 
twigs  of  apples  and  other  fruits  over  most  of  the  state.  This  is  especially  true 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


if  orchards  and  nurseries  are  near  tim- 
ber land.  In  this  case  again  the  dam- 
age done  is  entirely  due  to  injury  caused 
by  the  splitting  of  the  twigs  for  placing 
the  eggs.  No  injury  is  done  by  the  in- 
sect feeding  on  the  trees. 

Newly  planted  orchards  and  nursery 
stock  suffer  most.  On  bearing  trees  it 
simply  serves  as  extra  twig  prunning  and 
no  serious  damage  results. 

Control — There  is  no  very  effective 
treatment  to  check  injury  once  the  adult 
insects  arrive  in  the  orchard  or  nursery. 
Systematic  driving  will  help  to  some  ex- 
tent. As  a precaution  one  can  deter- 
mine in  advance  when  the  next  brood  will 
appear  and  if  a young  orchard  is  to  be 
started  select  land  that  has  been  in  culti- 
vation for  more  than  seventeen  years  if 
possible  and  select  an  orchard  site  as  far 
as  possible  from  timber.  This  will  insure 
the  least  possible  number  of  Cicadas  in 
the  orchard  later  when  the  pest  appears. 

Insect  Pests  of  Apple  Foliage 

This  includes  a very  large  group  of 
caterpillars,  grasshoppers,  plant  lice,  leaf- 
hoppers,  plant  bugs  and  other  more  or 
less  destructive  foliage  pests.  Where  ap- 
lications  of  sprays,  are  recommended  they 
are  included  in  the  regular  spray  sche- 
dule gi\e  in  connection  with  the  control  of 
the  codling  moth  on  page  22. 

Canker  Worms  ( Alsophila  pometaria  and  Paleacriia  vernata). — There 
are  two  species  of  canker  worms,  the  fall  and  spring  canker  worms.  The  first 
appears  as  the  adult  in  the  fall  and  lays  eggs  while  the  latter  appears  in  the 
spring.  The  female  moth  is  wingless.  The  caterpillars  are  common  dark- 
colored,  span  worms  and  do  their  destructive  work  just  before,  during  and 
following  apple  blooming  time.  They  often  completely  destroy  the  foliage  and 
crop  of  fruit.  There  is  one  generation  of  the  pest  a year.  The  caterpillars 
when  full  fed  leave  the  trees  and  pupate  in  the  soil  or  rubbish.  Here  they 
remain  until  late  fall  or  early  spring,  depending  on  the  species. 

Control — The  pest  is  controlled  effectively  by  spraying  with  an  arsenical 
just  before  the  blossoms  open,  or  on  isolated  trees  banding  with  tangle  foot,  or 
screen-wire  cones  is  effective  since  the  females  are  wingless  and  must  climb  up 
the  trees  to  deposit  eggs.  Occasionally  these  caterpillars  may  do  some  damage 
to  nursery  stock  and  when  they  do  apply  arsenical  sprays  promptly. 

Bagworms  ( Thridopteryx  ephermeraeformis). — This  peculiar  cater- 


FiG.  9. — Periodical  Cicada;  limbs 
split  by  female  Cicada  for  placing 
eggs  (After  Riley) 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


11 


Fig.  10. — Bagworm;  limb  with  a number  of  winter  cases  containing  eggs 


Fig.  11. — Bagworm;  small  apple  tree  showing  work  of 
young  bagworms 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 

pillar,  while  not  primarily  a pest  of  the  orchard  and  nursery,  is  often  a very 
troublesome  and  destructive  pest  in  the  nursery  or  orchard.  It  passes  the  winter 
in  the  egg  stage  in  the  larger  bags  suspended  from  twigs.  In  the  spring  the 
eggs  hatch  and  they  begin  feeding  soon  after  trees  come  into  foliage.  Each 
caterpillar  makes  for  itself  a bag  or  case  as  a protection  and  later  it  pupates  in 
this.  Where  abundant  it  will  strip  apple  trees  of  their  foliage.  The  adult  male 
moth  develops  wings,  while  the  female  remains  within  her  protecting  case 
where  late  in  the  fall  she  deposits  her  eggs. 

Control. — The  calyx  spray  for  the  codling  moth  will  also  control  this 
pest.  In  the  nursery  spray  early  in  the  spring  so  as  to  poison  the  young  worms. 
Hand  picking  of  the  bags  in  the  fall  after  the  foliage  is  off  will  also  help  con- 


Fig.  12. — Apple-tree  Leaf -roller;  two 
larvae  slightly  enlarged  (After 
Stedman) 


Fig.  13. — Apple-tree  Leaf -roller;  pupa 
slightly  enlarged  (After  Stedman) 


Fig.  14. — Apple-tree  Leaf -roller;  adults  much  enlarged  (After  Stedman) 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


13 


trol  the  pest.  It  attacks  various  evergreens,  shades  and  ornamental  shrubs 
worse,  as  a rule,  than  apple  trees. 

Leaf-roller  ( Archips  argyrospila) . — This  small  caterpillar  is  often  very 
destructive  to  foliage  of  nursery  trees  and  occasionally  to  bearing  apple  trees. 
It  may  have  three  or  four  broods  a year  in  this  state  and  when  abundant  the 
small  yellowish  millers  are  conspicuous  about  the  nursery  or  orchard  trees. 
The  small  active  caterpillars  roll  or  fold  the  leaves  on  which  they  feed.  It  may 
also  feed  to  some  extent  on  the  fruit,  especially  around  the  blossom  or  stem 
end  or  where  two  fruits  touch. 

Control. — In  the  nursery  arsenical  sprays  applied  just  as  the  broods  of 
young  worms  begin  their  work  has  proven  entirely  effective  in  one  of  the  larger 
nurseries  in  the  state.  The  development  of  the  pest  should  be  carefuly  fol- 
lowed and  the  spray  applied  before  the  young  worms  fold  or  curl  the  leaves 
too  much.  In  the  orchard  the  regular  summer  applications  of  poison  sprays,  will 
control  any  ordinary  outbreak  of  the  pest.  The  pest  passes  the  winter  in  the 
egg  stage.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  limbs  or  twigs  in  small  circular  light 
patches.  Some  have  used  oil  emulsion  sprays  to  destroy  the  winter  eggs  with 
fair  results  while  others  find  them  ineffective. 

Leaf-crumpler  ( Mineola  indigenella) . — The  leaf-crumpler  is  one  of  the 
most  common  foliage  feeding  caterpillars  on  young  trees  in  the  orchard  or 
nursery.  The  caterpillar  is  a small  reddish  or  brownish  colored  caterpillar 
which  prepares,  and  lives  within,  a 
slender,  coiled  case.  The  case  is 
usually  attached  to  a twig  and  has 
one  or  more  leaves  attached  to  it.  It 
passes  the  winter  as  a half  grown  cat- 
erpillar and  transforms  to  the  adult 
early  the  next  summer.  It  feeds  on 
the  foliage  of  other  trees,  fruits  and 
haws. 

Control. — It  is  most  abundant 
on  small  trees  and  in  the  fall  or  win- 
ter when  the  leaves  are  off  the  trees 
it  is  an  easy  matter  to  see  and  re- 
move by  hand  the  winter  cases  con- 
taining the  small  caterpillars.  An 
arsenical  spray  applied  soon  after 
the  foliage  appears  in  the  spring  is 
also  effective.  In  the  nursery  this  is 
the  most  practical  remedy.  In  the 
bearing  orchard  the  regular  summer 
arsenical  sprays  control  this  as  well 
as  other  common  foliage-feeding 
caterpillars. 

Leaf-miners  ( Spp .). — There  are  a number  of  small  caterpillars  which 
live  and  develop  within  the  cellular  structure  of  the  leaf.  The  serpentine, 
blotch,  trumpet  and  tentiform  leaf-miners  are  the  most  common  ones  found 
in  the  foliage  of  apple  trees.  Besides  these  the  pistal  and  cigar  case-bearers  and 


Fig.  IS. — Leaf-crumpler:  a , Tube  with  larva 

head  protruding;  b,  cluster  of  tubes;  c, 
head  of  larva,  enlarged;  d,  moth,  enlarged 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


the  ribbed  cocoon  makers  are  also  common  some  seasons.  In  this  state  these 
small  caterpillars  do  not  often  cause  serious  damage.  In  1911  and  1912  the 
unspotted  tentiform  leaf-miner  was  very  abundant  and  injured  foliage  seriously 
tho  fortunately  it  becomes  most  abundant  late  in  the  fall  after  the  crop  and 
most  of  the  growth  has  been  matured.  In  the  nursery  where  apple  trees  are 
dug  and  sold  as  one,  two  or  three-year  trees,  these  caterpillars  do  no  serious 
damage.  In  the  bearing  orchard  the  regular  arsenical  sprays  for  fruit  pests 
help  some  and  natural  parasites  also  help  to  prevent  serious  damage.  As  a 
rule,  therefore,  special  treatments  are  unnecessary. 

Other  Foliage  Caterpillars. — Besides  the  foregoing  foliage  caterpillars 
there  are  a number  of  very  common  species  in  the  nursery  and  orchard  which 
some  seasons  may  attract  much  attention  but  which  as  a rule  do  not  require 
special  treatment.  The  yellow-necked  and  red-humped  apple  worms,  the  fall 
web-worm,  apple  tent-caterpillar  and  white-marked  tussock  moth  are  the 
more  common  caterpillars  in  this  group.  Every  year  we  have  some  of  these 
present  but  the  amount  of  foliage  they  consume  is  usually  not  sufficient  to  war- 
rant spraying  or  applying  other  treatments. 

Control. — In  the  bearing  orchard  the  regular  arsenical  sprays  are  entirely 
effective.  In  the  nursery  or  when  injurious  on  young  orchard  trees  the  worms 
may  be  collected  by  hand  or  shaken  off  and  crushed  under  foot  or  an  applica- 
tion of  an  arsenical  spray  may  be  made  just  as  the  worms  begin  to  attack  the 
foliage. 

Grasshoppers  ( Spp .). — During  seasons  of  heavy  grasshopper  infestation, 
orchard  and  nursery  trees  are  sure  to  suffer  where  the  grasshoppers  are  per- 
mitted to  migrate  from  adjoining  pastures,  meadows  or  other  crops.  There 
are  three  common  species  of  grasshoppers  which  do  this  damage,  the  red-legged, 
differential  and  two-lived.  Where  injury  occurs  it  is  usually  soon  after  hay 
harvest.  The  foliage  is  often  completely  devoured  and  serious  injury  may 
result  wdiere  the  hungry  grasshoppers  attempt  to  appease  their  appetites  further 
by  gnawing  the  bark  from  the  twigs  and  even  the  trunks  of  small  trees. 

Control. — Where  grasshoppers  are  abundant  on  crops  near  the  orchard 
or  nursery  one  should  take  precautions  early  in  the  summer  to  prevent  trouble 
later.  Poison  bran  bait  sown  broadcast  in  infested  meadows  and  other  crops 
when  the  hoppers  are  yet  small  will  rid  the  community  of  the  pest.  Poison  bran 
bait  is  prepared  by  mixing  dry  50  pounds  of  bran  and  two  pounds  of  white 
arsenic  or  Paris  Green  and  moistening  this  with  about  8 gallons  of  water  with 
which  are  mixed  4 quarts  of  cheap  sorghum  and  the  juice  and  chopped  up 
rinds  of  six  lemons.  Sow  this  at  daybreak  so  the  hoppers  will  get  it  for  break- 
fast while  yet  moist  and  attractive.  Where  this  precaution  is  not  taken  and  the 
hoppers  are  feeding  on  the  foliage  spray  the  trees  heavily  with  an  arsenate  of 
lead  solution. 

Plant  Lice  (Spp.). — The  foliage  of  apple  trees  may  be  seriously  in- 

jured by  two  common  green  lice  and  one  rosy  louse.  The  injury  is  usually 
heaviest  early,  from  the  time  the  buds  open  until  the  fruit  is  well  set.  During 
the  winter  the  lice  eggs  may  be  found  attached  to  limbs  and  twigs,  especially 
in  the  leaf  scars  and  other  protected  nooks.  The  lice  feed  by  extracting  sap 
from  leaves,  blossoms  and  setting  fruit.  This  causes  a curling  of  the  leaves 
and  a knotting  and  dwarfing  of  the  fruit.  In  severe  cases  the  crop  of  foliage 
and  fruit  may  be  practically  all  destroyed.  Since  the  lice  are  sap  feeders,  ar- 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


15 


Fig.  17. — Plant  lice;  apples  dwarfed  due  to  plant  louse  injury.  (After  Talbert) 


senical  sprays  have  no  effect  on  them  since  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  take 
poison  into  their  stomachs. 

Control. — In  the  bearing  orchard  where  the  plant  lice  are  injurious  spray 


Fig.  16. — Plant  lice:  1,  Winter  eggs  on  twig-  2,  lice  on  tip  of 

apple  twig;  3,  development  of  louse,  enlarged 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


with  a nicotine  solution  promptly.  It  may  be  combined  with  the  regular  cluster 
or  calyx  sprays.  Commercial  nicotine  sulphate  containing  40%  nicotine  used 
at  the  rate  of  one  pint  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  or  combined  with  one 
hundred  gallons  of  regular  spray  mixture  is  very  effective.  On  young  orchard 
trees  the  same  solution  may  be  used.  In  the  nursery  where  the  buds,  leaves 
and  growing  tips  are  being  injured  spray  promptly  with  the  nicotine  solution 
or  where  practical  dip  the  infested  tips  in  the  solution. 

Leaf-hoppers. — Apple  trees  in  the  nursery  and  orchard  are  attacked  by 
two  common  leaf-hoppers.  In  the  orchard  the  rose  leaf-hopper  and  the  apple 
leaf-hopper  are  often  both  very  troublesome  while  on  nursery  stock  the  latter 
is  especially  injurious. 

Since  1910  the  apple  leaf-hopper  ( Bmpoasca  mali)  has  repeatedly  attracted 
attention  in  the  nurseries  of  the  state.  In  1911  and  1912  it  was  especially  in- 
jurious. Like  the  plant  lice  it  feeds  by  extracting  sap  from  the  young  leaves 
bo.th  as  the  immature  nymph  and  as  the  adult.  This  causes  a curling  of  the 
leaves  attacked  somewhat  like  plant  louse  injury.  The  characteristic  white 
speckled  appearance  on  the  upper  surface  of  injured  leaves  on  bearing  trees  is 
less  pronounced  on  the  young  vigorous  nursery  trees  tho  in  severe  cases  it  may 
show  up  some.  This  species  passes  the  winter  in  the  adult  winged  stage  in 
dry  grass  and  other  protection  about  the  orchard  or  nursery.  In  the  spring 


Fig.  18. — Apple  Leaf-hopper;  trap  used  for  running  over  rows  of  nursery  trees  to  catch 

adult  leaf-hoppers 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


17 


they  fly  to  the  apple  tree  to  feed  and  deposit  eggs.  During  the  summer  in 
Missouri  this  species  develops  three  or  four  broods  usually  increasing  in  abun- 
dance towards  fall.  Besides  apple  it  also  breeds  on  and  injures  the  foliage  and 
young  growth  of  Norway  and  hard  Maples  as  well  as  certain  vegetables. 

In  Missouri  the  rose  leaf-hopper  ( Bmpea  rosea ) seldom  attracts  attention 
in  the  nursery  but  is  very  abundant  toward  the  close  of  the  season  on  bearing 
apple  trees.  This  fall  (1920)  the  pest  was  so  abundant  in  orchards  in  central 
Missouri  that  much  of  the  apple  foliage  was  badly  injured  and  the  air  was 
often  so  full  of  the  adult  hoppers  that  they  annoyed  one  working  in  or  passing 
thru  the  orchard. 

This  species  is  creamy  white  to  light  yellow  in  color  with  a tinge  of  orange 
on  the  face  of  the  male.  It  passes  the  winter  in  the  egg  stage  under  the  bark 
of  apple  and  rose.  It  is  also  multiple  brooded  and  is  most  abundant  in  late  fall. 

Control. — In  the  nursery,  leaf-hoppers  may  be  controlled  with  a fair  de- 
gree of  success  by  using  a large  trap  including  sticky  shields  for  catching  the 
adults  as  well  as  the  older  nymphs.  In  this  state  spraying  with  nicotine  solu- 
tion or  oil  emulsions  have  not  proven  to  be  practical  on  any  large  scale.  One 
thorough  application  of  a contact  spray  to  control  the  first  brood  of  nymphs 
in  the  spring  will  reduce  later  injury  but  a trap  with  sticky  shields  can  be  run 
more  economically  and  effectively  and  where  used  by  nurserymen  it  has  re- 
placed the  use  of  sprays. 

In  the  orchard  spraying  is  usually  unnecessary  and  at  best  not  very  ef- 
fective. Thorough  destruction  of  the  overwintering  adults  of  the  apple  leaf- 
hopper  where  they  collect  in  grass  and  other  protection  is  a more  practical 
check  on  this  species.  This  is  not  effective  against  the  rose  leaf-hopper,  how- 
ever, since  it  passes  the  winter  as  the  egg  under  the  bark.  Fortunately  the  rose 
leaf-hopper  becomes  alarmingly  abundant  only  toward  fall  when  its  injury  to 
foliage  is  less  important. 

Tarnished  Plant-bug  ( Lygus  pratensis). — This  pest  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant pests  of  budded  nursery  stock.  It  does  injury  in  the  orchard,  too,  but 
its  most  prominent  injury  is  in  the  nursery.  It  is  a world-wide  pest  of  various 
crops  and  plants  and  is  a most  difficult  pest  to  completely  control. 

In  the  nursery  the  injury  is  done  early  in  the  spring  when  the  overwinter- 
ing adults  suck  sap  from  and  blight  the  young  buds  and  growth.  Peaches  are 
especially  subject  to  their  attack  tho  cherry,  pear  and  other  stock  also  suffer. 
The  insect  is  multiple  brooded  and  lives  thru  the  winter  in  rubbish  as  the  adult 
winged  bug.  Typical  “stop-back,”  “bush-head”  and  other  similar  injury  to  nurs- 
ery stock  is  largely  the  work  of  this  pest.  Often  entire  blocks  of  nursery 
stock  are  so  attacked  that  few  or  no  trees  of  marketable  grade  may  be  saved. 
Hundreds  of  acres  of  nursery  stock  are  damaged  every  year  by  this  pest. 

Control. — This  pest  breeds  primarily  on  weeds  in  or  near  the  nursery  and 
passes  the  winter  in  rubbish  near  the  nursery.  The  first  treatment  to  consider, 
therefore,  is  clean  culture  in  the  nursery  and  make  sure  that  draws,  fence  rows 
and  neighboring  fields  do  not  serve  as  breeding  places  for  this  pest.  Then 
make  sure  that  all  harboring  places  are  burned  over  or  plowed  under  during 
the  late  fall  or  winter.  This  will  prevent  much  of  the  danger. 

When  the  pest  begins  its  destructive  work  on  the  trees  in  the  spring  sys- 
tematic driving  or  heavy  rains  or  other  means  of  driving  the  pest  from  the 
trees  will  check  injury.  If  the  injury  does  not  occur  until  growth  has  well 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


Fig.  21. — Tarnished  Plant-bug;  life  cycle  of  pest  showing  egg,  five  nymph  and  adult  stages. 

Enlarged 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


19 


started  one  can  reshape  injured  trees  by  pruning.  However,  young  buds  or 
budded  stock  may  be  killed  outright  and  the  trees  lost.  In  the  orchard  the 


Fig.  22. — Tarnished  Plant-bug;  a,  injured  peach  trees  in 
nursery  rows;  b,  close  view  of  tree  showing  bush-head 
or  typical  injury  done  by  the  pest 


pest  seldom  requires  attention  but  weeds  and  winter  rubbish  should  always  be 
destroyed  so  as  to  prevent  the  pest  from  ever  becoming  abundant. 

Apple  Fruit  Insects 

In  Missouri  the  apple  worm  or  codling  moth  and  the  plum  curculio  are  the 
two  most  important  insects  attacking  the  fruit.  The  San  Jose  scale  in  scale 
infested  orchards  also  settles  on  the  fruit  seriously  damaging  it.  Of  the  less 
important  fruit  pests,  we  have  plant  lice,  lesser  apple  worm,  apple  curculio,  apple 
maggot  and  a number  of  caterpillars  which  may  feed  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit 
thruout  the  season.  However,  the  spraying  schedule,  directed  especially  at  the 
codling  moth  and  plum  curculio,  is  so  arranged  as  to  protect  the  fruit  also  from 
those  pests  of  lesser  importance. 

Codling  Moth  ( Carpocapsa  pomonella) . — This  small  pest  in  the  pink- 
worm  feeding  stage  is  known  to  all  who  eat  apples.  It  has  been  a pest  of 
apples  from  the  early  days  and  in  neglected  orchards  it  ruins  most  of  the 
fruit.  Its  development  and  injury  to  fruit  is  influenced  both  by  climatic  con- 
dition and  its  geographical  location.  In  Missouri  the  pest  develops  normally 
two  full  broods  and  at  times  three,  or  in  the  Ozark  section  even  a partial  fourth 
brood,  some  claim.  However,  the  control  measures  in  the  past  have  been  di- 
rected primarily  at  the  spring  and  summer  broods. 

Moth. — The  adult  moth  expands  about  three-fourths  an  inch  and  is  not 
often  observed  about  the  trees.  When  at  rest  its  wings  are  folded  over  the 
back  and  the  irregular  gray  and  brown  bands  on  the  fore  wings  give  it  a gray- 
ish-brown appearance.  It  becomes  active  about  dark  and  deposits  its  eggs 
mostly  on  the  leaves  surrounding  fruit  clusters,  tho  occasionally  on  the  side  of 
fruits. 

Egg. — The  egg  is  a pearly-white,  scale-like  object  which  can  be  detected 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


only  after  careful  search.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  a week,  depending  upon  the 
temperature. 

Larva. — The  young  larva,  like  the  egg  is  small  and  difficult  to  see  with  the 
unaided  eye.  If  hatched  near  fruit  the  larva  in  time  may  reach  the  fruit  and 
gain  entrance.  In  time  it  makes  its  way  to  the  core  and  later  feeds  on  the 
seeds  and  surrounding  part  of  the  apple.  The  larva  at  first  is  light  but  usually 
takes  on  a more  or  less  distinct  pink  color.  It  feeds  for  about  one  month  and 
when  full  fed  is  about  three  fourths  an  inch  in  length.  On  maturing  the  larva 
leaves  the  fruit,  spins  a cocoon  in  some  protected  place,  such  as  under  the  bark 
of  the  tree  and  in  time  pupates. 

Pupa. — The  pupa  is  a small  brownish  object  very  similar  to  other  related 
species.  It  is  about  one-half  an  inch  long  and  is  found  inside  a small  but  rather 
firm  cocoon.  In  the  summer  it  usually  remains  in  the  pupa  stage  for  from 
about  one  week  to  ten  days  and  then  emerges  as  the  adult. 

The  insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  larval  stage  in  the  cocoon  protected 

under  the  bark  of  the  tree  or  about 
apple  boxes,  pens  or  where  apples 
were  stored  for  a time  after  picking. 
The  larvae  pupate  just  before  apples 
begin  to  bloom  and  the  adults  emerge 
soon  after  the  blossoms  drop.  Eggs 
are  soon  deposited  and  the  first 
young  larvae  begin  to  hatch  about 
two  weeks  after  the  blossons  are  all 
off. 

Those  worms  which  gain  access  to 
fruit  become  fullfed  in  about  a 
month,  when  they  leave  the  fruit, 
spin  their  cocoon  and  later  emerge 
as  the  summer  brood  moths.  In 
central  Missouri  these  usually  appear 
on  wing  during  the  first  ten  days  of 
July.  However,  they  may  be  has- 
tened or  retarded  in  thier  develop- 
ment by  temperature  so  each  fruit 
grower  should  determine  the  date  of  emergence  of  the  summer  brood 
of  moths  in  his  own  orchard.  This  he  can  do  either  by  collect- 
ing a few  wormy  apples  in  June,  and  putting  them  in  a tight  box  or 
other  container  where  later  the  emerging  of  the  moths  can  be  observed  or  by 
putting  rag  bands  on  a few  trees  under  which  the  worms  will  collect  to  pupate, 
and  where  the  first  emerging  of  adults  can  easily  be  determined.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  know  when  the  July  or  summer  brood  of  moths  emerge  so  as  to  prop- 
erly time  the  July  application  of  spray. 

Where  a third  brood  develops  the  moths  emerge  late  in  August  and  the 
small  worms  may  be  found  in  the  fruit  at  picking  time  in  the  fall.  In  the 
southern  part  of  the  state  spring  opens  earlier  and  the  pest  has  a longer  breed- 
ing season.  This  permits  the  pest  to  develop  more  broods  and  to  do  more 
damage  to  the  fruit. 

During  the  present  spring,  summer  and  fall  conditions  in  Missouri  have 


Fig.  23. — Codling  moth;  stages  of  devel- 
opment and  injury  to  apple  (After  Riley) 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


21 


Fig.  24. — Codling  moth.  Apples  at  proper  stage  for  applying  calyx  spray.  (After  Talbert) 


Fig.  25. — Codling  moth;  Apples  too  far  advanced  for  calyx  spray.  (After 

Talbert) 


22  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


been  somewhat  abnormal  and  an  unusually  large  number  of  worms  appeared 
late  and  the  fall  injury  ha3  been  unusually  severe,  even  in  some  sprayed  or- 
chards. 

Control. — In  the  control  of  this  pest  we  depend  primarily  on  spraying. 
Some  relief  comes  from  the  proper  disposal  of  wormy  fruit  and  the  attraction 
of  insectiverous  birds  to  the  orchard,  but  the  real  relief  comes  from  a system- 
atic use  of  insecticides.  The  spray  schedule  for  apple  is  arranged  first  of  all 
to  reach  the  codling  moth,  but  the  different  applications  are  so  timed  and  so 
combined  as  to  reach  all  the  important  fruit  and  foliage  insects  as  well  as 
those  fungi  which  also  must  be  controlled.  This  schedule  may  include  all  or 
part  of  the  following  applications,  depending  on  conditions  in  the  orchard. 

Dormant  Spray. — This  spray  is  needed  only  when  San  Jose  scale  is  pres- 
ent. It  may  be  either  a lime-sulphur  solution  or  an  oil  emulsion  as  outlined 
under  the  control  of  San  Jose  scale. 

Cluster  Spray. — This  is  given  just  before  the  blossoms  open  but  after 
the  cluster  buds  separate.  If  plant  lice,  canker  worms  and  apple  scab  are 
also  to  be  controlled,  the  spray  solution  should  include  one  and  a half  gallons 
lime  sulphur  solution,  one  pound  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  or  two  pounds  of 
paste  arsenate  of  lead  and  one-half  pint  of  40%  nicotine  sulphate  to  fifty  gal- 
lons of  water. 

Calyx  Spray. — This  is  given  just  after  the  most  of  the  blossoms  are  off 
and  before  the  calyx  ends  of  the  young  fruits  close.  It  includes  the  same  ma- 
terials as  the  cluster  spray,  except,  where  the  louse  is  under  control,  omit  the 
nicotine  sulphate. 

Curculio  or  Second  Apple-worm  Spray. — Where  curculio  or  apple  blotch 
are  not  important,  repeat  the  calyx  spray  in  about  two  weeks.  Where  curculio 
is  bad  apply  this  spray  in  about  one  week  after  the  calyx  spray  and  repeat  it 
two  or  three  weeks  later.  If  apple  blotch  is  present  use  3-4-50  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture for  the  one  and  a half  gallons  of  lime  sulphur  solution  in  this  and  the 
following  spray. 

Local  conditions  will  necessarily  vary  the  time  of  application  and  the  mix- 
ture for  this  and  the  one  or  two  additional  sprays  which  it  may  be  necessary 
to  apply  in  close  succession.  It  is  well  for  all  fruit  growers  to  keep  this  in 
mind  and  consult  with  the  spray  specialists  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  when 
conditions  are  abnormal. 

July  Spray. — This  is  applied  just  before  the  apple  worms  of  the  second 
or  summer  brood  hatch  and  begin  to  enter  the  fruit.  It  usually  includes  one 

and  a half  gallons  of  lime  sulphur  solution  and  one  pound  powder  or  two 

pounds  paste  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  If  blotch  is  present  the 
Bordeaux  is  used  as  the  fungicide  in  place  of  the  lime  sulphur  solution. 

Where  additional  broods  of  the  codling  moth  or  where  summer  and 
fall  fruit  diseases  are  destructive  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  on  additional  ap- 
plications and  the  College  of  Agriculture  should  be  consulted  regarding  these. 

Plum  Curculio  ( Conotrachelus  nenuphar) . — This  small  snout  beetle  is 

abundant  thruout  the  state.  It  breeds  primarily  in  plums  and  peaches  but 
often  does  serious  damage  to  apples.  It  attacks  apples  both  for  feeding  and 
for  ovipositing,  but  only  a small  percentage  of  the  eggs  deposited  in  apples  suc- 
ceed in  maturing.  The  crescent  gashes  made  by  the  adult  beetle  usually  heal 

over  later  tho  often  they  serve  as  entrance  places  for  the  small  apple  worms  and 
for  various  fungi. 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


23 


The  adult  is  about  the  size  of  a garden  pea  and  is  blotched  with  brown, 
gray  and  black.  It  has  a short,  stout  snout  and  rather  distinct  humps  or  bumps 
on  the  back.  It  passes  the  winter  in  the  adult  stage  in  rubbish  and  other  pro- 
tection. In  the  spring  about  two  weeks  after  apple  blossoms  fall  or  when  wild- 
goose  plums  are  the  size  of  the  tip  of  ones  small  finger,  the  adult  appears  on  the 
fruit,  cutting  crescent  gashes  for  egg  laying  or  circular  pits  for  feeding.  When 

these  eggs  hatch  especially  in  stone  fruits 
the  yellowish  white  footless  grub  bores 
down  into  the  fruit  to  feed.  It  is  the  typi- 
cal slightly  curved  worm  found  in  plums 
which  ripen  prematurely  and  in  wormy 
peaches.  The  fullfed  worms  in  central 
Missouri  leave  the  fruit  in  about  three 
weeks  after  the  eggs  are  laid.  These  en- 
ter the  soil  to  pupate,  and  around  the  mid- 
dle to  the  last  of  July  they  again  emerge 
as  the  adults.  These  may  feed  on  fruit  un- 
til Fall  and  are  usually  responsible  for 
most  of  the  plum  cruculio  injury  to  apples. 
There  is  normally  one  brood  a year,  tho 
often  in  unusual  years  as  in  1920  larvae  may  be  found  feeding  in  peaches 
as  late  as  September. 

Control. — This  pest  can  be  controlled  in  part  by  poison  sprays,  and  the 
spray  applied  one  week  after  the  calyx  spray  is  so  timed  as  to  reach  the  adults 
while  making  the  egg  and  feeding  punctures  soon  after  the  fruit  sets.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  sprays  are  less  effective  for  this  pest  than 


Eig.  26. — Plum  Curculio;  adult 
curculio,  much  enlarged.  (After 
Stedman) 


.'Fig.  27. — Plum  Curculio;  apple  showing  typical  crescent  gashes  made  by  plum  curculio  for 
placing  eggs.  (After  Talbert) 


for  the  apple  worm.  For  this  reason  the  sprays  should  be  supplemented  by  the 
practice  of  clean  culture  to  destroy  the  overwintering  adults,  the  prompt  dis- 
posal of  wind-fall  fruit  with  the  enclosed  worms  and,  where  practical,  shallow 
cultivation  under  stone  fruit  trees  during  July  to  destroy  the  soft,  helpless  rest- 
ing stage  of  the  pest.  On  small  trees  it  is  possible  to  jar  the  adults  onto  sheets, 
when  they  begin  to  attack  the  fruit,  and  thereby  destroy  them.  Since  this  spe- 


24  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


cies  breeds  largely  in  stone  fruits,  injury  to  apples  can  be  greatly  reduced  if 
peaches,  plums  and  cherries  are  not  planted  in  or  near  the  apple  orchard. 

San  Jose  Scale. — As  previously  mentioned,  the  scale  settles  on  the  fruit 
as  well  as  on  the  foliage  and  the  timber  of  the  tree.  The  crop  on  scaly  trees 
may  be  practically  ruined.  Its  market  value  is  reduced  and  the  quality  of  the 
fruit  is  also  injured.  If  remedial  measures  previously  discussed  are  applied  to 
protect  the  tree  the  fruit  will  also  be  protected.  The  dormant  spray  is  neces- 
sary as  the  summer  sprays  are  too  weak  to  control  the  pest  to  any  extent. 

Plant  Lice  ( Spp .). — When  the  plant  lice  are  abundant  on  buds,  foliage 
and  twigs  at  blooming  time  and  soon  thereafter  the  young  fruit  is  also  sure 
to  suffer.  The  lice  sucking  sap  from  the  young  fruits  cause  a dwarfing  or  com- 
plete check  in  its  normal  growth.  This  reduces  the  yield  as  well  as  quality.  If 
necessary  sprays  to  protect  foliage  and  growth  are  applied,  the  fruit  also  will 
be  protected. 

Lesser  Apple  Worm  ( Bnormonia  prunivora) . — This  small  caterpillar 

somewhat  resembles  the  real  apple  worm,  tho  it  is  smaller  and  usually  of  a 
deeper  pink  color.  It  feeds  just  under  the  skin  of  the  fruit  producing  a mined- 
like  effect.  Its  life  cycle  and  feeding  habits  are  quite  similar  to  those  of  the 
apple  worm  and  the  regular  spray  applications  for  the  latter  will  control  it  as 
well.  For  the  past  several  years  in  Missouri  this  pest  has  been  of  comparatively 
little  importance. 

Apple  Curculio  ( Anthonomus  quadrigibbus) . — This  snout  beetle,  may 
become  very  destructive  to  apples,  tho  as  a rule  it  is  the  work  of  the  plum 
curculio  that  causes  most  damage  in  Missouri.  Its  life  cycle  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  plum  curculio  except  that  it  seems  to  enter  hibernation  quarters  earlier  and 
thereby  does  less  injury  to  the  fruit  by  feeding  in  the  summer  and  fall.  It 
makes  a small  circular  opening  in  the  surface  of  the  fruit  and  hollows  out  below 
in  the  flesh  of  the  young  apple  a cylindrical  egg  cavity.  The  surrounding  tissue 
then  hardens,  causing  a characteristic  deformity  of  the  fruit. 

Control. — Spray  applications  help  some  as  with  the  plum  curculio  but 
they  must  be  supplemented  with  clean  orchard  practices  and  prompt  disposal 
of  infested  windfall  apples  early  in  the  season. 

Other  Fruit-feeding  Caterpillars  (Spp.). — Some  seasons  green  and 

ripening  apples  are  more  or  less  injured  by  different  caterpillars.  The  green 
fruit  worms  and  the  apple  leaf-roller  are  often  quite  troublesome.  They  may 
eat  rounded  holes  in  the  fruit  or  irregular  gashes  about  the  stem  or  blossom 
end.  Where  a regular  system  of  summer  sprays,  including  an  arsenical,  is  ap- 
plied year  after  year,  these  caterpillars  do  little  damage. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  PEAR 

In  Missouri  the  pear  is  attacked  by  only  a few  of  the  worst  pear  pests. 
San  Jose  scale,  codling  moth,  curculio,  and  blight  are  most  commonly  com- 
plained of  on  pear.  Pear  slug  may  do  considerable  damage  but  pear  psylla  and 
blister  mite  are  seldom  of  serious  consequences.  The  discussions  on  apple  in- 
sects covers  also  pear  injury  and  a separate  discussion  is  unnecessary  here. 

In  the  nursery  do  not  grow  pear  trees  near  old  blighted  trees  and  do  not 
permit  wild  haws  to  stand  in  or  near  the  pear  blocks.  Pear  trees  should  be 
carefully  gone  over  so  that  all  trees  which  may  show  the  least  signs  of  blight 
are  detected  and  thrown  out. 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


25 


Pear  Slug  ( Eriocampoides  limacina) . — This  pest  attacks  the  foliage  of 
pear  and  cherry  often  very  badly.  It  is  a small  greenish,  slimy  worm  similar 
to  the  rose  slug  and  related  species.  Often  a dozen  may  feed  on  one  leaf,  con- 
suming the  surface  layer,  which  causes  the  leaf  to  dry  up.  The  pest  develops 
two  broods  a year,  the  adults  of  the  first  appearing  in  June  while  the  adults 
of  the  second  appear  in  August.  The  first  brood  is  most  destructive. 

The  pest  attacks  the  foliage  of  trees  both  in  the  nursery  and  in  the  orchard. 
As  a rule  cherry  is  attacked  more  severely  than  pear. 


Fig.  28. — Pear  slug:  a,  Adult  female  sawfly;  b,  larva  en- 

larged; c,  back  view  of  same;  d,  injured  leaves  with 
larvae,  natural  size.  (After  Marlatt) 


Control. — Where  the  regular  summer  sprays  are  applied  to  bearing  trees 
the  pest  will  be  controlled.  On  nursery  stock  the  pest  can  be  controlled  by 
•dusting  or  spraying  with  an  arsenical. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  PEACH 

The  peach  in  the  nursery  and  orchard  is  not  subject  to  as  many  pests  as  is 
the  apple,  however,  there  are  a number  of  important  peach  pests.  Of  these 
the  peach-tree  borer,  the  San  Jose  scale,  the  plum  curculio,  the  tarnished  plant- 
hug,  the  peach  twig-borer,  the  shot-hole  borer,  and  black  peach  aphis  are  usually 
the  most  important. 

Peach-tree  Borer  ( Sanninoidea  exitiosa). — This  is  a caterpillar  borer 
which,  while  especially  important  in  the  orchard,  may  at  times  attack  older  peach 
stock  in  the  nursery.  Its  presence  is  usually  readily  recognized  by  the  appear- 
ance of  peach  gum  about  the  base  of  the  tree.  . The  borer  varies  from  a very 
tiny  whitish  caterpillar  to  one  an  inch  long  and  of  a yellowish-white  color.  It 
works  between  the  bark  and  the  wood  from  a few  inches  above  the  ground 
usually  to  a few  inches  below  ground.  The  adult  moth  resembles  a wasp  in 
appearance  and  action.  The  male  has  transparent  wings  and  the  body  steel- 
Ijlue  in  color  with  yellow  on  the  tip  while  the  female  is  larger,  wings  more 


26  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


completely  covered  with  blue  scales  and  the  body  is  steel-blue  with  a distinct 
orange  band. 

The  pest  passes  the  winter  in  the  larval  stage.  In  some  cases  the  larva 
may  be  very  small  while  in  other  cases  it  may  be  almost  mature.  In  the  peach 
belt  of  the  Ozarks  the  moths  begin  emerging  from  the  more  advanced  over- 
wintering larvae  around  the  last  of  May  but  the  heavy  emergence  and  egg 
laying  usually  comes  between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  first  of  August. 

Control — The  peach-tree  borer  is  no  exception  to  the  rule  that  fruit  tree 
borers  are  difficult  and  expensive  to  control.  Worming  by  hand  and  the  use 


tr 


Fig.  29.— Peach  tree  Borer:  Crowns  of  peach  trees  showing  borers  and  injury.  (After 

Chandler) 

of  repelling  or  protecting  paints  should  always  be  supplemented  by  clean 
culture  and  the  removal  of  old  worthless,  borer-breeding  peach  trees  and 
snags.  In  the  nursery  do  not  hold  over  any  old  trees  as  breeding  places  for 
borers  and  keep  the  young  peach  blocks  as  far  as  possible  from  old  peach  or 
plum  trees.  Do  not  sell  peach  trees  which  show  signs  of  being  infested  with 
borers,  unless  they  are  fumigated. 

Badly  infested  trees  should  be  wormed  in  the  fall  and  again  late  in  May 
before  the  moths  begin  to  emerge.  Dig  away  the  dirt  and  gum  and  with  a 
knife  blade  locate  and  destroy  the  borers  without  injuring  the  tree  more  than 
necessary.  After  the  borers  are  removed  in  late  May  paint  or  spray  the  trunk 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


27 


and  exposed  roots  with  one  part  of  lime-sulphur  solution  to  ten  parts  of  white 
wash  solution.  If  applied  with  a sprayer  it  should  be  made  thinner  than  if 
painted  on.  When  dry,  mound  up  about  the  trees.  One  pound  of  arsenate  of 
lead  may  be  added  to  every  ten  gallons  'of  the  paint  or  wash. 

San  Jcse  Scale. — This  pest  and  its  control  on  peach  is  largely  a duplication 
of  its  work  and  control  on  apple.  Peach  nursery  stock  infested  with  or  ex- 
posed to  the  scale  should  be  treated  the  same  as  apple  stock. 

Plum  Curculio. — The  life  cycle  and  habits  of  this  pest  have  already  been 
•discussed  under  apple  insects.  The  pest  breeds  most  abundantly  in  peaches  and 
plums  and  special  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  it  from  developing  in  these 
fruits.  Clean  culture,  destruction  of  wormy  windfalls,  jarring  where  practical 
and  shallow  cultivation  in  July  should  be  supplemented  with  the  use  of  arseni- 
cal sprays  to  poison  the  adults  as  suggested  on  apple..  The  peach  foliage  is 
more  easily  burned  than  that  of  apple  so  greater  care  must  be  taken  with  mix- 
ing and  applying  sprays  to  peaches.  The  fuzzy  nature  of  the  peach  enables  it 
to  hold  the  poison  better  than  either  apple  or  plum.  Where  curculio  injures 
peach  the  spray  application  given  when  most  of  the  shucks  or  collars  are  off 
the  young  fruit  and  the  application  given  one  week  to  ten  days  later  are  the 
most  effective  applications.  They  should  include  about  one  pound  powdered 
or  two  pounds  paste  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty  gallons  of  the  8-8-50  self-boiled 
lime-sulphur  solution.  Do  not  use  the  ordinary  commercial  lime  sulphur  for 
spraying  peaches  when  in  leaf  as  it  injures  foliage.  As  a dormant  spray,  how- 
ever, it  is  all  right  for  controlling  San  Jose  scale. 

Tarnished  Plant-bug. — This  pest  has  already  been  discussed  more  espe- 
cially as  a pest  of  nursery  stock.  Peach  nursery  stock  suffers  more  than  other 


Fig.  31. — Black  Peach  Aphis; 

peach  tree  showing  lice  on  roots 
(After  Smith) 


28  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


types  tho  pear,  cherry,  and  apple  may  also  suffer  from  the  pest.  In  the  bearing- 
orchard  peach  does  not  suffer  much  injury. 

Peach  Twig-borer  ( Anarsia  lineatella) . — This  small  caterpillar  is  often 
very  injurious  to  buds  and  new  growth  on  both  nursery  and  orchard  trees. 
Bearing  trees  are  usually  more  .seriously  injured  than  younger  trees.  In  the 
summer  and  fall  it  is  also  often  quite  troublesome,  working  into  the  fruit  around 
the  stem  end  or  where  fruit  cracks.  Late  peaches  suffer  most. 

It  passes  the  winter  as  a young  larva  in  a small  chamber  made  in  the  bark 
usually  at  the  fork  of  two  small  twigs.  In  the  spring  these  larvae  bore  into- 
buds  and  tips  of  new  growth  often  killing  several  buds  before  maturing.  These 
pupate  in  curled  leaves  or  other  protection  and  the  small,  dark-gray  moth  soon 
emerges  to  lay  eggs  for  the  next  generations.  . The  later  generations  work 
more  in  the  fruit  and  less  in  the  twigs. 

Control. — This  pest  is  usually  most  abundant  on  neglected  trees  tho  well 
kept  peach  orchards  may  become  seriously  injured.  The  best  means  of  reaching 
the  pest  is  to  apply  the  lime  sulphur  spray  in  the  spring  just  as  the  young 
larvae  are  leaving  their  winter  quarters.  The  spray  may  be  applied,  after  the 
buds  begin  to  open  but  before  the  blossoms  are  open,  with  effective  results  ort 
the  borer  and  yet  not  seriously  injure  the  peach  foliage. 

Shot-hole  Borer. — This  species  has  been  discussed  under  the  apple  insects 
and  the  same  treatments  recommended  there  will  control  the  pest  on  peach 
trees. 

Black  Peach  Aphis  ( Aphis  persicae-ntger). — This  louse  has  been  re- 

ported on  peach  in  Missouri  but  thus  far  no  serious  injury  has  occurred.  It 
works  on  the  roots  and  in  the  summer  some  may  come  up  on  the  leaves  and 
twigs.  It  resembles  other  plant  lice  in  feeding  habits  by  extracting  sap.  It  is  a 
very  dark-colored  louse. 

Control. — If  nursery  stock  becomes  infested  it  should  be  thoroughly  fumi- 
gated before  being  disposed  of.  In  the  orchard  nicotine  sulphate  sprays  are 
effective  where  the  louse  appears  above  ground  and  tobacco  dust  is  suggested 
for  the  root  form  where  injurious.  Thus  far  this  species  has  not  done  any 
appreciable  injury  in  the  state. 

The  most  up-to-date  peach  orchards  of  the  state  usually  receive  clean  cul- 
ture which  materially  reduces  the  favorable  conditions  for  various  insects. 
It  is  usually  the  neglected  orchard  where  the  above  insects  are  most  abundant 
and  injurious. 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  PLUM  AND  CHERRY 

Plums  and  cherries  are  subject  to  about  the  same  insects  as  peaches.  The 
San  Jose  scale  attacks  certain  types  of  plum  and  sweet  cherries  very  badly.  The 
plum  curculio  attacks  the  fruit  of  plums  and  cherries  often  completely  destroy- 
ing the  crop.  The  peach-tree  borer  may  also  do  some  damage  on  both  plum  and 
cherry.  The  peach  terrapin  scale  also  attacks  plum.  The  plum  louse  and  the 
cherry  louse  are  also  injurious  some  seasons.  The  cherry  scale  often  becomes 
injurious..  The  cherry  maggot  is  seldom  injurious  to  cherries  in  the  state  as 
is  also  true  of  the  apple  maggot  or  railroad  worm  in  apples.  Where  plum  and 
cherry  are  attacked  by  pests  discussed  under  apple  and  peach  insects  simply 
refer  to  recommendations  given  under  those  fruits. 

Rusty  Brown  Plum  Louse  ( Aphis  setoriae ). — This  dark-brown  louse 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


29 


is  usually  most  injurious  early  in  the  season.  It  also  attacks  peach.  It  attacks 
the  leaves  and  young  growth.  Where  abundant  one  application  of  the  regular 
nicotine  spray  will  control  the  pest.  It  is  not  often  that  sprays  are  necessary 
on  nursery  stock. 

Cherry  Louse  ( Myzus  cerasi). — This  pest  is  most  severe  on  sweet 
cherry  trees  in  the  nursery.  Injury  on  bearing  trees  is  usually  slight.  Prompt 
applications  of  the  nicotine  spray  or  the  dipping  of  the  tips  in  the  solution  will 
give  relief. 

Cherry  Scale  ( Aspidiotus  forbesi). — This  scale  is  found  commonly  on 
both  bearing  cherry  and  apple  in  this  state.  Occasionally  it  seriously  encrusts 
cherry  trees.  It  may  also  appear  on  young  trees  in  the  nursery,  especially  ap- 
ples where  the  scions  are  taken  from  trees  showing  infestation.  Nursery  stock 
showing  any  signs  of  this  scale  should  be  discarded.  Bearing  trees  showing 
any  serious  infestation  should  be  given  one  thorough  application  of  lime  sul- 
phur as  for  San  Jose  scale.  Apply  it  in  the  spring  as  growth  starts. 

Cherry  Fruit-flies. — Where  injury  from  these  result,  it  is  the  work  of 
the  white  maggot  stage  in  the  fruit.  In  the  east  these  maggots  do  much  dam- 
age to  cherries  but  in  this  state  it  is  seldom  that  they  are  found  in  the  fruit. 
Where  cherries  are  found  to  be  wormy  it  is  usually  the  work  of  the  footless 
grub  of  the  plum  curculio  as  discussed  earlier  under  apple  insects.  The  fruit 
flies  feed  on  sweets  for  a time  after  emerging  in  the  spring  and  later  deposit 
eggs  in  the  green  fruit.  To  control  the  pest  therefore  a small  quantity  of  a 
poisoned  sweet  syrup,  consisting  of  four  pounds  arsenate  of  lead  10  one  hundred 
gallons  of  water  sweetened  with  cheap  molasses  may  be  sprayed  or  sprinkled  on 
the  cherry  foliage  at  the  time  the  flies  are  emerging.  Some  claim  that  one  or 
two  applications,  of  two  pounds  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty  gallons 
of  water,  to  the  foliage  just  as  the  flies  are  emerging  gives  results. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  GRAPES 

In  this  state  the  grape  scale,  leaf-hopper,  various  leaf  feeding  beetles  and 
caterpillars,  fruit  worm  and  curculio  are  the  more  troublesome  pests  on  grape 
in  the  nursery  and  vineyard.  Unfortunately  the  grape  is  not  grown  as  abun- 
dantly in  the  states  as  it  should  be.  However,  as  a consequence  of  this  the 
insect  problem  on  grape  is  not  so  important  a one  with  us  as  is  the  case  in  large 
grape-growing  sections  of  the  country. 

Grape  Scale  ( Aspidiotus  uvae). — Not  infrequently  in  the  vineyard  this 
small  armored  scale  injures  or  kills  grape  vines  outright.  It  works  on  the 
canes  more  or  less  protected  by  the  loose  bark  on,  the  older  growth.  Where 
injurious,  it  can  be  controlled  by  pruning  and  spraying,  when  the  vines  are 
dormant,  with  lime  sulphur  solution  diluted  with  eight  parts  of  water  as  for 
the  San  Jose  scale.  Where  the  loose  bark  is  abundant  tear  it  away  before 
spraying.  In  some  cases  San  Jose  scale,  which  is  a close  relative  of  the  grape 
scale  attacks  and  destroys  grape  vines  in  this  state.  In  the  nursery  grape 
scale  is  of  no  serious  consequence. 

Grape  Leaf-hopper  (Typhlocyba  comes). — This  small  yellow  and  red 
marked  leaf-hopper  is  common  on  grapes  and  related  vines  every  year,  seriously 
injuring  the  foliage  and  thereby  affecting  the  growth  of  the  vines  and  the 
crop.  The  nymphs  and  adults  extract  sap  from  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves 
causing  them  to  appear  specked  with  white  spots  and  where  the  injury  is  se- 


30  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


vere  the  leaves  turn  brown  and  drop  prematurely.  This  is  perhaps  the  most 
common  and  most  injurious  pest  of  grapes  in  this  state. 

The  pest  passes  the  winter  in  the  adult  winged  stage  in  rubbish  in  the  vine- 
yard or  nearby  along  fences  or  where  dry  grass,  leaves  or  other  protection  is 
found.  Early  in  the  spring  the  adults  may  extract  sap  from  other  plants  until 
the  grape  foliage  develops  when  they  attack  it  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  lower 
surface  of  the  leaves.  Virginia  creeper  on  buildings  is  also  similarly  attacked. 
In  Missouri  several  generations  are  developed  each  year,  the  pest  becoming 
more  abundant  and  injurious  toward  fall. 

Control. — Clean  culture  in  and  near  the  vineyard  especially  in  the  winter 
to  destroy  the  overwintering  adults  is  the  first  practical  treatment  to  apply. 
When  the  pest  is  abundant  spray  with  nicotine  sulphate  using  one-half  pint  to 
fifty  gallons  of  water  when  the  early  brood  of  nymphs  begins  to  appear  on  the 
lower  surface  of  the  leaves.  Use  a penetrating  mist  spray  and  make  sure  that 
the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves  are  thoroughly  sprayed.  If  not  entirely  effec- 
tive repeat  it  later  for  succeeding  generations  of  nymphs.  It  is  not  effective  in 
killing  the  winged  adult.  Sticky  shields  have  now  largely  given  way  to  sprays. 
In  the  nursery  the  pest  can  be  very  effectively  controlled  with  the  nicotine 
spray. 

Leaf-feeding  Beetles  and  Caterpillars  ( Spp .). — In  Missouri,  the  rose 
chafer  and  the  grape-vine  flea-beetle  are  the  two  most  important  beetles  attack- 
ing grape  foliage.  . The  grape  root-worm  and  the  adult  leaf-feeding  beetle  is 
present  but  thus  far  has  done  no  appreciable  injury.  Of  the  caterpillars,  the 
leaf-folder,  the  eight-spotted  forester,  and  the  plume-moth  are  most  commonly 
found  injuring  the  foliage  of  grape.  A number  of  other  species  feed  on  grape 
but  only  rarely  destroy  much  foliage.  In  the  nursery  the  leaf-roller  is  usually 
the  only  species  that  requires  attention. 

Control. — Where  the  foliage  of  grape  is  being  injured  by  chewing  insects 
one  or  more  applications  of  an  arsenical  spray  will  usually  destroy  the  pest  and 
save  the  foliage  and  fruit.  In  case  of  the  rose-chafer  poison  sprays  are  less 
effective.  For  this  pest  use  three  pounds  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  and 
two  quarts  of  a cheap  grade  of  molasses  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  The  molas- 
ses hides  the  taste  of  the  poison  and  the  stronger  spray  will  kill  many  of  the 
beetles.  However,  one  should  supplement  the  sprays  with  hand  work  as  the 
foliage  may  be  badly  damaged  in  a few  hours  in  case  of  a severe  outbreak. 
Where  sprays  are  to  be  applied  do  not  wait  until  the  leaves  are  folded  or  until 
the  pest  has  done  serious  damage.  On  a few  vines  hand  work  will  prove  en- 
tirely effective. 

Grape-berry  Moth  ( Polychrosis  viteana). — This  small  caterpillar  is 
more  or  less  injurious  every  year  on  the  fruit.  . It  is  to  the  grape  what  the 
codling  moth  is  to  apple.  There  are  normally  two  generations  a year.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  pupa  stage  on  the  grape  leaves.  The  adults  emerge  and 
lay  eggs  so  that  the  young  worms  are  ready  to  begin  feeding  on  the  young  set- 
ting fruits.  These  mature  and  the  second  generation  of  worms  work  on  and 
in  the  fruit  toward  ripening  time. 

The  caterpillar  varies  in  color  from  greenish-brown  to  purple  and  when 
full  fed  is  nearly  one-half  an  inch  long.  The  adult  is  smaller  and  darker  than 
tho  somewhat  resembling  the  codling-moth  in  general  wing  markings.  The 
presence  of  the  pest  on  grape  is  easily  detected  by  the  reddish  blotches  on 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


31 


unripe  fruits  and  the  small  worm  feeding  inside  the  fruit  or  where  two  fruits 
touch. 

Control. — Where  this  pest  is  injurious  an  arsenical  spray,  combined  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  for  grape  diseases,  should  be  applied  just  after  the  blos- 
soms are  off  and  young  fruits  begin  to  set  well.  It  is  well  to  repeat  this  in  10 
days  and  where  injury  is  especially  severe  spray  again  early  in  July  just  as  the 
worms  of  the  second  generation  begin  to  hatch  and  attack  the  fruit.  One 
pound  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  in  fifty  gallons'  of  4-5-50  Bordeaux  should 
be  used. 

Supplement  the  sprays  each  year  by  gathering  and  burning  or  plowing 
under  all  grape  leaves  in  the  late  fall. 

Grape  Curculio  ( Craponius  inaequalis) . — This  small  snout  beetle  is 

often  very  injurious  to  the  fruit,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 
There  is  one  main  generation  each  year.  The  beetles  begin  making  egg  punc- 
tures after  the  fruits  are  about  half  grown  and  may  continue  until  the  earlier 
varieties  ripen.  The  adult  feeds  to  some  extent  on  the  foliage  and  where 

arsenical  sprays  are  applied  at  regular  intervals  to  keep  poison  on  the  foliage 

the  pest  can  be  successfully  controlled.  The  adults  pass  the  winter  in  rubbish, 

so  clean  culture  in  and  near  the  vineyard  during  the  fall  and  winter  will  reduce 

the  number  of  adults  that  appear  in  the  vineyard  the  next  summer.  The  sec- 
ond spray  for  the  grape-berry  worm  will  help  materially  with  the  curculio. 

In  Missouri  our  larger  nurserymen  grow  comparatively  little  of  their  grape 
stock  so  that  the  nurserymen’s  problem  of  handling  insect  pests  on  grape  stock 
is  a comparatively  small  one  as  compared  with  other  types  of  nursery  stock. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  GOOSEBERRY  AND  CURRANT 

Only  three  insects  are  of  special  importance  on  gooseberries  or  currants  in 
Missouri.  The  San  Jose  scale  is  often  found  on  currants  and  the  imported 
currant  worm  and  currant  louse  are  to  be  met  with  every  year.  The  various 
other  insects  reported  as  attacking  the  stems,  foliage  and  fruit  have  in  the  past 
been  of  little  importance  in  this  state. 

San  Jose  Scale. — In  the  nursery  and  in  the  garden  currants  may  become 
infested  with  the  scale  and  it  soon  proves  fatal  to  the  bushes.  Dormant  sprays 
as  on  fruit  trees  will  control  it.  Infested  plants  in  the  nursery  should  be 
promptly  destroyed. 

Imported  Currant  Worm  ( Pteronus  ribesii). — Every  spring  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  of  gooseberry  and  currant  are  out  the  dark  wasp-like  adult  appears 
to  place  her  eggs  in  the  veins  of  the  leaves.  The  pest  passes  the  winter  in  the 
cocoon  usually  as  the  larva  and  the  adults  appear  early.  The  eggs  hatch  in 
about  ten  days  and  the  young  worms  begin  to  eat  holes  in  the  leaves  usually 
down  in  the  center  of  the  bush  where  they  are  less  easily  seen.  As  the  worms 
increase  in  size  they  devour  all  edible  parts  of  the  leaves  often  leaving  the  bare 
stems  with  partly  developed  fruits  and  leaf  stem.  The  common  green  and 
black  spotted  worms  are  familiar  to  all  who  grow  currants  and  gooseberries. 
When  full  grown  the  larvae  are  three-fourths  an  inch  long  and  spin  a small  oval 
cocoon  near  the  ground  or  under  rubbish  on  the  ground.  A second  and  even 
a third  generation  is  said  to  develop  but  in  this  state  the  only  damage  done  is 
due  to  the  work  of  the  spring  brood  of  larvae. 

Control. — This  pest  is  easily  controlled.  Dust  or  spray  with  arsenate  of 


32  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


lead  as  soon  as  the  foliage  is  well  out  and  no  damage  will  be  done  by  this  pest. 
Too  often  one  waits  until  the  worms  show  up  and  by  that  time  usually  con- 
siderable damage  has  already  been  done. 

Currant  Louse  ( Myzus  ribis). — This  louse  in  recent  years  has  done 

considerable  injury  to  foliage  especially  of  currant  in  this  state.  Its  presence 
is  easily  detected  by  the  appearance  of  reddish  blotching  on  the  surface  of  in- 
fested leaves.  Where  the  lice  are  feeding  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves 
they  cause  an  upward  projection  of  the  surface  of  the  leaves  or  a pocket-like 
formation.  Except  in  severe  cases  the  leaves  do  not  crumple  up  or  develop 
knot-like  formations.  On  currants  the  lice  appear  shortly  before  the  fruits 
begin  to  ripen  in  this  state. 

Control. — As  with  other  plant  lice  one  or  two  thorough  applications  of 
nicotine  sulphate  will  give  relief.  If  a sprayer  is  not  at  hand  double  the  strength 
of  the  nicotine  solution  and  apply  it  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves  with  a 
wisp  of  grass  or  dip  the  infested  shoots  where  they  are  not  bearing  fruit. 

Here  again  much  of  the  gooseberry  and  currant  stock  used  in  Missouri  is 
propagated  in  the  east  and  north.  The  Federal  regulations  affect  the  move- 
ment of  currants  from  state  to  state,  since  it  may  carry  the  white  pine  blister- 
rust.  These  regulations  are  given  in  full  in  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Circular  No.  99. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  BLACKBERRIES  AND  RASPBERRIES 

In  Missouri  the  red  spiders,  which  are  not  true  insects,  and  the  snowy  tree- 
cricket  are  the  only  pests  that  attract  special  attention  on  blackberries  and 
raspberries.  The  rose  scale  may  at  times  do  some  injury.  The  nurserymen, 
however,  are  also  interested  in  the  two  important  plant  diseases,  namely,  anth- 
rachnose  and  blackberry  rust,  since  both  these  can  be  spread  on  nursery-grown 
plants  and  both  are  classed  as  dangerously  injurious  diseases  by  the  various 
state  nursery  inspection  departments. 

Red  Spiders. — The  common  red  spiders  are  very  small  mites  related 
to  common  spiders  and  to  the  scab  or  mange  mites  of  live  stock.  When  they 
cause  trouble  on  blackberries  or  raspberries,  it  is  due  to  favorable,  dry,  hot, 
climatic  conditions.  In  a normal  summer  in  this  state  no  injury  results  but 
in  dry  summers  these  crops  often  suffer  severely.  The  red  spider  spins  some 
silk  as  protection  and  usually  feeds  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf.  The 
epidermis  is  broken  and  the  liquid  content  of  the  leaf  cells  is  consumed  re- 
sulting in  a yellowing  of  the  leaf  in  spots  and  eventually  its  complete  drying  up. 

Control. — Where  mites  cause  trouble  and  a liberal  supply  of  water  can 
not  be  applied  to  the  affected  patch,  dust  with  powdered  sulphur  when  the  dew 
is  on. 

Snowy  Tree-cricket  ( Oecanthus  nigricornis) . — This  small  active  white 

cricket  is  common  in  the  state  and  at  times  may  do  considerable  damage  to 
the  young  raspberry  canes  that  are  to  produce  fruit  the  following  summer. 
However,  it  is  of  much  less  importance  with  us  than  various  reports  show  it 
to  be  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Where  injury  results  it  is  due  to  the 
work  of  the  female  in  placing  her  eggs  in  the  canes.  This  results  in  a splitting 
and  dying  of  many  canes  where  extensive  oviposition  occurs.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  in  the  fall,  they  hatch  the  following  spring  and  the  nymphs  feed  all 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


33 


summer  on  the  foliage  of  different  plants  before  maturing  to  deposit  eggs  for 
the  following  year’s  crop  of  young. 

Control. — Where  this  pest  is  troublesome  remove  and  burn  injured  canes 
containing  the  overwintering  eggs.  Also  practice  clean  culture  in  and  near 
the  patch  thruout  the  year. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  STRAWBERRIES 

In  this  state  strawberries  may  be  attacked  by  a large  number  of  insects 
and  diseases  but  the  root  louse,  leaf-roller,  slugs,  weevil,  crown-borer,  tarnished 
plant  bug  and  white  grubs  are  the  most  important.  Some  years  the  leaf-roller 
may  practically  ruin  the  crop  over  the  important  strawberry  belt  of  the  states. 
To  nurserymen,  the  louse,  leaf-roller  and  the  leaf-spot  disease  are  of  special 
importance,  since  they  may  be  spread  on  the  young  plants. 

Root  Louse  ( Aphis  forbesi). — This  louse  has  been  reported  as  injuring 
strawberry  fields  in  the  state  but  it  has  not  shown  up  in  any  of  the  fields  where 


Fig.  32. — Strawberry  Leaf -roller;  strawberry  leaf  showing  leaflet 

folded  by  pest 


plants  have  been  grown  for  distribution.  In  the  early  part  of  the  season  the 
lice  hatching  from  overwintering  eggs  on  the  foliage  feed  by  extracting  sap 
from  the  young  growth  but  later  ants  carry  them  underground  where  they 
feed  on  the  root  system.  Where  the  lice  cause  trouble  in  strawberry  patches 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  spread  infestation  on  plants  shipped  to  growers. 
Dip  plants  in  nicotine  solution  before  setting  in  the  spring  and  spray  infested 
patches  after  the  overwintering  eggs  hatch  and  before  lice  are  carried  to  the 
roots  by  ants.  Also  destroy  old  strawberry  beds  as  they  may  serve  as  breeding 
places  for  lice  and  other  pests  of  strawberry. 

Leaf-roller  ( Ancylis  comptana) . — This  small  active  caterpillar  has  been 

the  most  destructive  pests  of  this  crop  in  recent  years  in  the  state.  It  may  also 
attack  raspberries  and  blackberries.  The  insect  is  multiple  brooded,  having 


34  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  176 


probably  four  broods  a year  in  the  southern  counties  of  the  state.  However, 
the  big  damage  comes  before  and  at  picking  time.  The  winter  is  passed  ap- 
parently largely  in  the  larval  stage.  The  moth  expands  slightly  more  than  one 
half  an  inch  and  when  seen  on  wing  has  a brownish  appearance,  the  fore  wings 
being  also  marked  with  lighter  and  darker  streaks.  The  strawberry  grower 
readily  detects  these  in  the  patch  and  speaks  of  them  as  brownish  moths  or 
millers. 


Control. — Arsenical  sprays  are  effective  if  applied  at  the  right  time.  Watch 
for  the  appearance  of  the  moths  early  in  the  spring  usually  the  latter  half  of 
April  in  the  southern  strawberry  belt,  and  spray  promptly  with  two  pounds  of 
arsenate  of  lead  powder  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  The  plan  is  to  poison  the 
young  worms  before  they  have  folded  over  the  two  halves  of  the  leaflets  as 
protection  while  feeding.  If  this  early  spray  is  not  effective  repeat  it  after 
the  crop  is  off  and  the  next  broods  of  moths  appear  in  the  patch.  Some  prac- 
tice mowing  and  burning  over  patches  after  the  crop  is  off.  Where  this  is  done 
it  should  be  so  timed  as  to  catch  the  pest  in  the  pupa  stage  about  the  last  week 
in  July  in  southwest  Missouri.  Destroy  old  abandoned  patches  and  volunteer 
plants. 

Strawberry  Slugs. — Two  species  of  slugs  are  reported  on  strawberries, 

tho  the  black-marked  species  (E.  maculata) 
is  the  more  important  in  this  state.  It  is 
the  larva  of  a sawfly  related  to  the  im- 
ported currant-worm.  The  larvae  begins 
to  attack  the  foliage  when  the  crop  of  ber- 
ries is  about  half  developed.  One  thorough 
application  of  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of 
lead  powder  to  fifty  gallons  of  water  at 
that  time  will  usually  end  the  trouble. 
This  spray  and  the  one  for  leaf-roller  may 
be  combined  where  both  pests  are  at  work 
on  a patch. 


Fig.  32. 


-Strawberry  Slug; 
much  enlarged 


Adult 


Strawberry  Weevil  ( Anthonomus  signatus). — This  pest  does  not  do 
much  damage  in  this  state  tho  some  complain  of  it.  Where  present  it  cuts  the 
stems  of  blossoms  after  the  egg  is  deposited  in  the  blossom  bud. 

Control. — Clean  culture  in  and  about  the  patch  with  the  setting  of  new 
patches  often  and  the  plowing  under  of  old  patches  will  usually  control  this 
pest.  It  attacks  only  the  staminate  varieties  but  commercial  growers  select 
commercial  varieties,  be  they  varieties  subject  to  attack  or  those  immune  to 
attack. 


Tarnished  Plant-bug. — This  plant-bug  breeds  in  the  strawberry  patches 
and  the  overwintering  adults  often  do  serious  damage  to  the  crop.  They  at- 
tack the  blossom  buds  and  young  fruits  causing  them  to  be  imperfect  or  as  the 
grower  terms  it  “buttoning”  of  the  fruit. 

Control. — Clean  culture  in  and  near  the  patch  during  the  winter  as  well 
as  the  summer  will  reduce  the  number  of  adults  to  pass  the  winter  in  the  patch 
or  nearby  and  thus  reduce  early  spring  injury.  Systematic  driving  of  the  pest 
with  the  wind  early  in  the  spring  is  suggested  also  as  a means  of  lessening  the 
injury  to  strawberries  the  same  as  in  case  of  budded  nursery  stock.  Sprays 
and  hand  gathering  is  impractical  in  the  commercial  field. 


Nursery  and  Orchard  Insect  Pests 


35 


Crown  Borer  ( Tyloderma  fragoriae) . — This  beetle  breeds  abundantly  in 
the  crowns  of  older  plants  doing  considerable  damage.  New  plantings  and  fields 
reset  often  do  not  suffer.  Keep  down  volunteer  plants  and  plow  under  aban- 
doned patches.  The  beetles  are  unable  to  fly,  so  new  fields  should  be  set  at 
some  distance  from  old  ones  using  only  young  plants.  Those  distributing 
plants  should  sell  only  the  young  plants  which  are  not  infested. 

White  Grubs  {Lachno sterna  spp.). — In  recent  years  numerous  complaints 
of  white  grubs  have  come  from  strawberry  growers.  They  attack  the  roots, 
weakening  or  killing  the  plants.  Often  where  sod  is  plowed  under  and  straw- 
berries planted  in  the  ground  serious  injury  may  result.  Where  old  fields  are 
not  abandoned  and  new  ones  set  often  enough  the  brown  June  beetles,  the  adults 
of  the  white  grubs,  may  visit  strawberry  fields  and  deposit  their  eggs  thus 
starting  an  infestation.  Some  species  of  white  grubs  may  feed  as  grubs  for 
two  or  three  seasons. 

Control. — Set  new  fields  on  uninfested,  cultivated  soil  and  replant  often 
enough  to  prevent  this  pest  becoming  abundant  and  injurious  to  the  crop. 

In  this  report  no  effort  has  been  made  to  discuss  all  the  thousands  of  in- 
sects which  may  attack  the  various  fruits.  Only  those,  which  for  the  past 
ten  or  twenty  years  have  been  of  most  serious  injury  to  nursery  stock  and  the 
bearing  fruit  crops,  have  been  included.  Fruit  growers  and  nurserymen,  there- 
fore, who  have  trouble  with  species  not  discussed  herein,  should  communicate 
with  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Columbia,  Missouri  and  the  pest 
will  be  investigated,  if  a new  important  one,  or  information  on  its  control 
promptly  given.  Investigations  are  now  being  made  of  a number  of  the  pests 
discussed  herein  and  when  completed  the  results  of  these  studies  will  appear  in 
full  in  future  station  publications. 


' 

’ 

- 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  177 


AN  INVESTIGATION  OF  THE 

DIPPING  AND  FUMIGATION 
OF  NURSERY  STOCK 


A lot  of  condemned  apple  trees 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
DECEMBER,  1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

the;  curators  of  the;  university  of  Missouri 
executive  board  of  the  university 

H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL. 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

December,  1920 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta* 

R.  M.  Smith,  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedemann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  SiEvEking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  B.  Culbertson,  Jr.,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  W.  Manning,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

G.  W.  York,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B.  S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 
E-  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Bernard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A-  T.  Edinger,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

JL  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Sam  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

S.  R.  McLanE,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  GromEr,  A.  M. 

B.  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

FORESTRY 
Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  F.  Major,  B.  S. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B.  S. 

poultry  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 

R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  Secretary 

S.  B.  ShirkEY,  Asst,  to  Dean 

O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 
Miss  Bertha  C.  Hite,1  A.  B.,  Seed  Testing 
Laboratory 


•In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
On  leave  of  absence. 


Stock 


An  Investigation  of  the 
Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery 

K.  C.  Sullivan 


More  than  one  hundred  years  ago  the  first  nursery  was  started  in  Mis- 
souri. At  that  time  Missouri  was  a part  of  the  Great  West  and  was  settled 
mostly  along  the  water  courses.  The  fruit  industry  at  that  time  was  undevel- 
oped. Today  there  are  in  Missouri  more  than  one  hundred  nurseries.  One 
■of  the  largest,  if  not  the  largest,  nurseries  in  the  world  is  located  in  Mis- 
souri and  the  acres  of  some  of  the  others  run  well  up  into  the  hundreds. 
The  growth  of  the  fruit  and  nursery  industry  in  Missouri  has  been  remark- 
able. Also,  the  increase  in  the  number  of  injurious  insect  pests  of  the  fruits 
bas  been  equally  as  remarkable;  in  fact,  they  have  increased  so  rapidly  that 
in  some  sections  farmers  are  abandoning  the  fruit  industry  and  entering 
some  other  line  of  work  in  which  insect  pests  are  not  so  troublesome. 

Some  of  the  most  injurious  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases  of  fruit 
trees,  that  we  have  to  contend  with,  were  first  introduced  and  scattered  over 
the  country  on  nursery  stock.  The  most  noted  and  most  injurious  one  of 
these  is  the  San  Jose  scale.  This  scale  is  so  destructive  that  every  state  in 
the  Union  and  the  Federal  Government  have  passed  stringent  laws  regard- 
ing its  distribution  and  control.  Missouri  has  a law  which  forbids  anyone 
in  the  State  to  distribute  or  dispose  of  nursery  stock  of  any  sort  upon  which 
there  is  San  Jose  scale;  nor  is  anyone  from  outside  the  state  allowed  to 
ship  infested  plants  into  the  state.  In  many  states  there  is  a law  which 
requires  that  all  plants  badly  infested  with  San  Jose  scale  be  destroyed  and 
that  those  which  are  not  visibly  infested  be  treated  with  the  best  known 
remedies  for  the  destruction  of  the  scale. 

The  San  Jose  scale  has  become  so  widely  distributed  in  Missouri  that 
strong  measures  have  been  taken  to  stop  further  distribution.  It  is  usually 
carried  from  one  section  of  the  country  to  another  upon  nursery  stock. 
Practical^  all  original  infestations  in  Missouri  were  started  from  scale 
brought  into  the  community  upon  nursery  stock.  Since  the  San  Jose  scale 
is  usually  carried  into  a non-infested  district  upon  nursery  stock,  the  logical 
thing  to  do  is  to  produce  clean  stock;  that  (is,  nursery  stock  upon  which 
there  is  no  scale.  This  is  very  difficult  to  do,  especially  where  the  scale  has 
once  obtained  a foothold. 

From  time  to  time,  various  remedies  have  been  recommended  by 
which  nursery  stock  can  be  treated  and  the  scale  destroyed.  Some  of  these 
treaments  killed  the  trees  as  well  as  the  scale;  others  did  not  always  kill 
the  scale,  and  others  cost  so  much  that  they  were  not  practical,  especially 
with  the  smaller  nurserymen. 

During  the  past  five  years  the  writer  has  been  constantly  in  touch 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


with  all  the  Missouri  nurserymen  and  it  has  been  his  pleasure  to  make  per- 
sonal visits  with  practically  every  nurseryman  in  the  state  and,  especially 
with  those  located  in  communities  where  San  Jose  scale  is  prevalent.  He 
has  worked  with  them  and  helped  them  treat  their  nursery  stock  for  scale 
and  other  injurious  insects.  While  engaged  in  the  work,  many  problems, 
confronting  the  nurserymen,  concerning  the  eradication  of  San  Jose  scale 
from  nursery  stock,  have  been  brought  to  his  attention.  As  a result,  a 
number  of  experiments  have  been  made  to  test  the  effect  of  the  different 
materials  commonly  used  upon  infested  and  non-infested  stock,  with  the 
object  in  view  of  determining  which  remedy  is  the  most  practical  from  all 
standpoints,  under  Missouri  conditions. 

Life  cycle  of  San  Jose  scale. — 'The  mature  San  Jose  scale  is  yellow  with 
a sac-like  body  which  is  covered  with  a soft,  waxy  secretion — the  scale. 
This  covering  serves  as  a protection  for  the  pest.  The  insect  passes  the 
winter  in  a half-grown  stage,  all  other  stages  being  killed  by  winter  condi- 
tions. These  half-grown  insects  are  found  under  a small  black  scale  just 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  About  95  per  cent  or  more  of  these  are  male 
insects,  they  being  greatly  in  excess.  About  the  first  of  May,  the  males 
pupate  and  in  a short  time  emerge  as  delicate  two-winged  insects.  The 
females  at  this  time  have  arrived  at  the  stage  of  impregnation  and  in  a few 
days  the  males  disappear.  The  females  reach  maturity  about  a month  later 
and  begin  to  give  birth  to  living  young. 

Most  of  the  other  scale  insects  deposit  eggs  which  later  hatch,  but  this 
is  not  true  of  the  San  Jose  scale.  The  young  are  developed  in  a mem- 
branous sac  which  corresponds  to  an  egg,  but  they  usually  burst  out  of 
this  before  being  born.  Thus  the  San  Jose  scale  is  usually  oviviviparous, 
but  it  may  be  partially  oviparous.  A single  female  is  capable  of  giving 
birth  to  600  young  in  a period  of  about  six  weeks.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
if  a female  gives  birth  to  more  than  100  or  200  insects  and  many  of  these 
are  males.  Even  at  this  rate  of  reproduction,  from  one  single  female  the 
total  number  of  off-spring  at  the  end  of  a season  reaches  into  the  millions. 
The  newly  born  insects  are  very  tiny,  yellow  in  color  and  have  six  legs. 
They  soon  push  their  way  out  from  under  the  scale  of  the  mother  and  crawl 
around  for  a day  or  so  finding  a suitable  place  to  settle  down.  On  the  apple 
the  young  scale  seem  to  push  out  towards  the  tender  growing  tips  to  settle 
down,  while  on  the  peach  they  stay  more  on  the  old  wood.  It  is  at  this 
stage,  while  the  young  are  crawling  about,  that  the  pest  is  likely  to  be  scat- 
tered from  one  place  to  another  upon  the  feet  and  bodies  of  birds,  beetles 
and  other  objects.  If  the  branches  of  two  trees  intermingle,  the  young 
easily  crawl  from  tree  to  tree  and  it  is  often  in  this  manner  that  the  pest 
spreads. 

When  a suitable  place  is  found,  the  young  settle  down  and  begin  to 
work  the  long  proboscis,  which  is  three  or  four  times  the  length  of  the  in- 
sect’s body,  into  the  tissue  of  the  host  and  begin  developing  a scale  cover- 
ing. Within  two  or  three  days,  this  covering  of  cottony  and  waxy  fibers 
becomes  matured  into  a pale  grayish  scale  which  gradually  becomes  darker. 

Male  and  female  scales  are  similar  in  size,  shape  and  color  until  the 
first  molt,  which  takes  place  in  from  twelve  to  fourteen  days  after  the  emer- 
gence of  the  larva.  Up  to  this  time  the  male  and  female  are  indistinguish- 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock  5 

able  in  appearance,  but  after  the  first  molt  they  lose  all  resemblance  to  each 
other.  The  females  lose  their  eyes,  legs  and  antennae  and  become  almost 
circular  with  indistinct  segments.  They  resemble  very  much  a minute  flat- 
tened, yellowish  sac.  Springing  from  beneath  the  body,  near  the  center, 
they  have  a set  of  long  needle-like  mouth  parts  with  which  they  obtain 
nourishment  from  the  plant.  After  the  first  molt,  the  male  insects  change 
in  appearance  also.  They  lose  their  legs  and  antennae  but  instead  of  losing 
their  eyes  they  develop  large  purple  ones  and  they  become  elongated  and 
pyriform  in  shape.  At  this  time  the  scale  covering  of  the  body  of  both 
sexes  has  a decidedly  grayish  tint  mixed  to  some  extent  with  yellow. 

In  about  eighteen  days  after  birth,  the  male  changes  to  the  pro-pupa 
or  first  pupal  condition  and  the  scale  covering  assumes  a longer  shape  which 
sometimes  tends  to  be  curved.  At  this  stage  the  male  begins  to  look  more 
like  an  insect.  Two  or  three  terminal  segments  can  be  seen,  the  posterior 
one  bearing  two  short  spines.  The  antennae,  legs  and  wing  pads  are  visi- 
ble. The  purple  eyes  are  set  close  together. 

About  two  days  later,  or  about  twenty  days  from  birth,  the  male  insect 
transforms  to  the  true  pupa.  The  matted  skin  at  this  time,  instead  of  form- 
ing a part  of  the  scale  covering  as  in  the  preceeding  molt,  is  pushed  out 
from  beneath  the  scale.  The  last  or  third  molted  skin  is  also  pushed  from 
beneath  the  scale. 

The  male  insect  becomes  mature  in  twenty-four  to  twenty-six  days 
from  birth  and  pushes  out  backward  from  beneath  the  scale. 

In  from  three  to  five  weeks  from  the  larva,  the  females  molt  the  sec- 
ond time.  The  skin  splits  around  the  edge  of  the  body.  The  upper  half 
adheres  to  the  scale  covering  and  the  lower  half  forms  a sort  of  ventral 
scale  between  the  insect  and  the  bark.  The  female  insect  becomes  full 
grown  in  from  thirty  to  forty  days  from  birth. 

The  adult  male  insect  appears  as  a very  small,  delicate,  two-winged  fly 
about  0.6  mm.  long  and  is  capable  of  flying  from  place  to  place.  The  mature 
female  does  not  develop  as  the  male  does,  but  remains  concealed  beneath 
her  scale  as  a small,  yellowish,  almost  circular  insect  about  0.8  mm.  wide 
and  1 mm.  long.  No  eyes,  legs,  wings  or  antennae  are  developed. 

The  scale  covering  of  the  female  is  almost  circular  and  slightly  raised 
in  the  center.  The  exuvia  is  central  or  nearly  so.  In  diameter  the  scale 
varies  from  1 to  2 mm.  The  color  of  the  scale  is  gray,  excepting  the  part 
covering  the  exuvia,  which  is  a pale  or  reddish  yellow  and  the  ring  effects, 
which  are  often  noted  between  the  center  and  outer  edge  of  the  scale,  marks 
the  edges  of  the  molts  of  the  larval  scale. 

The  scale  covering  of  the  male  is  darked  than  that  of  the  female  and  es- 
pecially in  the  winter,  when  it  is  black.  In  shape,  it  is  oblong-oval  and 
just  about  half  as  wide  as  long.  It  ranges  from  0.5  to  1 mm.  in  length. 
There  is  a nipple-like  prominence  located  between  the  anterior  margin  and 
center  of  the  scale  which  marks  the  position  of  the  larval  scale. 

In  Missouri  there  are  four  generations  a year  and  probably  five,  espe- 
cially in  a favorable  season.  The  generations  overlap  to  a great  extent. 

Owing  to  the  smallness  and  the  color  of  the  scales,  the  insect  is  hard 
to  detect  by  the  untrained  eye  and  in  many  cases  the  writer  has  known  the 
lenticles,  or  small  knots  on  a tree,  to  be  mistaken  for  the  San  Jose  scale. 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


When  a plant  becomes  encrusted  with'  the  insects,  it  looks  grey  in  color 
and  upon  rubbing  the  hand  along  the  trunk  or  branches  large  flakes  of  the 
dead  scales  become  loosened  and  fall  off.  The  tree  looks  sick  and  does 
not  leaf  out  so  early  in  the  spring  as  a normal  tree  and  usually  dies  within 
a season  or  two.  Where  there  is  only  a scattering  of  scale  on  the  plant, 
it  can  usually  be  detected  by  the  sunken  places  in  the  bark  caused  by  a lack 
of  food  material  which  has  been  used  by  the  insect  instead  of  by  the  tree. 
Also  immediately  around  the  scale  the  bark  takes  on  a reddish  tinge,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  caused  by  a toxin  which  the  insect  injects  into  the  plant. 
This  red-like  blotch  is  very  characteristic  of  the  San  Jose  scale,  especially 
on  the  apple  and  peach. 

Damage. — It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  amount  of  damage  done  by 
the  San  Jose  scale  in  Missouri  orchards  because  at  present  no  one  knows 
exactly  how  extensively  Missouri  is  infested,  but  it  is  a known  fact  that 
many  large  commercial  and  small  orchards  have  been  completely  destroyed 


Some  poorly  packed  nursery  stock.  This  stock  was  also  infested  with 
San  Jose  scale.  It  was  found  and  condemned  thus  preventing  its  dis- 
tribution 


by  it.  However,  in  the  nurseries  of  Missouri  in  the  past  two  years,  the 
damage  caused  by  this  insect  has  amounted  to  the  tremendous  sum  of  $20,- 
000.00  and  this  is  but  a drop  in  the  bucket  as  compared  with  the  damage 
to  the  orchards  in  Missouri. 

Control  in  the  orchard. — The  San  Jose  scale  can  be  controlled  in  the 
orchards  if  proper  precautions  are  taken.  The  most  successful  method 
practiced  today  is  the  use  of  lime-sulphur  as  a dormant  spray.  Certain  of 
the  miscible  oils  are  also  used  to  a greater  or  less  extent  with  good  results. 
Commercial  lime-sulphur  can  be  purchased  on  the  market,  which,  when 
mixed  with  water,  one  gallon  of  lime-sulphur  to  seven  gallons  of  water, 
makes  a most  efficient  spray. 

A miscible  oil  makes  a good  spray  when  mixed  with  water  at  the  rate 
of  one  gallon  of  the  oil  to  twelve  gallons  of  water.  The  lime-sulphur  spray 
is  the  cheaper  spray  of  the  two  and  is  recommended  by  the  United  States- 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  by  the  state  experiment  stations. 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


7 


As  the  San  Jose  scale  is  a sucking  insect,  it  is  impossible  to  destroy 
it  by  using  a poisonous  spray,  so  a contact  spray  must  be  used.  The  spray 
must  be  strong  enough  to  either  destroy  the  scale  outright,  that  is,  con- 
sume its  body,  or  have  great  penetrating  power,  like  the  oil  emulsions  which 
burn  and  smother  the  insects. 

According  to  Todeman,  lime-sulphur  spray  was  first  used  for  the  con- 
trol of  insects  in  1851,  by  a Frenchman  by  the  name  of  Grison,  a gardner  at 
Versailles,  France.  Grison  used  the  following  formula  at  first  but  later 
reduced  the  amount  of  lime  to  half. 

Flowers  of  sulphur  500  gms. 

Freshly  slaked  lime  500  gms. 

Water  3 liters. 

Boil  for  ten  minutes,  draw  off  the  clear  liquid  and  use  1 to  100  parts 
of  water.  This  mixture  was  used  as  a fungicide  and  is  one  of  the  few  early 
spray  preparations  still  in  use. 

Regarding  the  first  use  of  lime-sulphur  washes  in  America,  Lodeman 
says:  “A  mixture  similar  to  the  following  was  originally  used  in  California 

as  a sheep  dip,  but  as  fruit  trees  began  to  drive  out  the  sheep,  the  applica- 
tions of  the  compound  were  transferred  to  the  trees,  and  thus  it  has  been 
very  generally  used,  and  has  proved  to  be  of  value  in  the  orchards  as  well 
as  on  the  sheep.  It  is  used  against  insects  and  fungi. 

Lime  (unslaked)  25-40  pounds 

Salt  15  pounds 

Sulphur  20  pounds 

Water  60  gallons 

“To  mix  the  above,  take  10  pounds  of  lime,  20  pounds  of  sulphur  and 
20  gallons  of  water.  Boil  until  the  sulphur  is  thoroly  dissolved.  Take  the 
remainder,  15  pounds  of  salt  and  15  pounds  of  lime,  slake  and  add  enough 
water  to  make  the  whole  60  gallons.  Strain  and  spray  on  the  trees  when 
milk  warm  or  somewhat  warmer.  This  can  be  applied  when  the  foliage  is 
off  the  tree  and  will  have  no  injurious  effect  upon  the  fruit  buds  or  upon  the 
tree  itself.” 

Marlatt  says  “the  early  experience  with  lime-sulphur  and  salt  washes 
for  San  Jose  scale  was  unfavorable,  largely  due  apparently  to  the  fact  that 

the  observations  on  the  trees  treated  were  not  continued  long  enough  to 

note  the  effect  of  the  late  summer  results.  Good  results  were  obtained  with 
the  kerosene  emulsions  and  particularly  with  the  soap  washes  and  the  fish- 
oil  soap  washes.” 

The  formula  which  is  commonly  used  at  the  present  time  in  making 
home  made  concentrated  lime-sulphur  solution  is  as  follows: 

Lump  Lime  40  pounds 

Sulphur  80  pounds 

Water  50  gallons 

About  10  gallons  of  hot  water  is  added  to  the  sulphur  and  thoroly 
stirred,  lhe  lime  is  then  added.  As  the  lime  slakes  hot  water  is  added  as 
necessary  to,  prevent  caking.  When  the  lime  has  completely  slaked 
enough  hot  water  is  added  to  make  50  gallons  and  the  solution  boiled  for 
an  hour  and  kept  constantly  stirred.  Water  is  added  from  time  to  time  to 
keep  the  liquid  up  to  50  gallons.  This  concentrated  solution  should  test 
about  31  degrees  Beaume.  It  should  be  stored  in  tight  barrels  until  ready 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 

for  use.  When  used  it  is  diluted  with  water  in  the  same  manner  as  ti  e 
commercial  lime  sulphur. 

Hydrocyanic-acid  gas  was  also  tried  in  controlling  San  Jose  scale  on 
orchard  trees,  and  at  present  is  used  upon  citrus  trees  for  controlling  citrus 
scale.  Where  care  was  taken  this  method  proved  quite  successful  when 
used  on  the  deciduous  fruit  trees,  but  the  cost  of  fumigating  an  orchard  as 
compared  with  spraying  was  so  great  that  the  former  method  has  been 
abandoned  altogether.  An  air-tight  box  had  to  be  constructed  in  such  a 
way  that  it  could  be  moved  from  over  one  tree  to  another,  or  a large  tent 
had  to  be  placed  over  the  tree  to  be  treated  and  the  gas  generated  beneath. 
Each  tree  had  to  be  treated  for  about  one  hour. 

The  treatment  for  San  Jose  scale  must  be  applied  while  the  tree  is  in  a 
dormant  condition  for  the  scale  is  so  difficult  to  kill  that  a treatment,  to  be 
effective,  must  be  made  so  strong  that  it  will  also  kill  foliage.  While  the 
tree  is  in  a dormannt  condition,  the  insects  are  easily  reached  and  a strong 
spray  can  be  applied  without  any  fear  of  damaging  the  foliage.  Also,  as  the 
insects  pass  the  winter  in  a half-grown  state,  they  are  more  easily  killed 
during  the  dormant  season. 

In  applying  a spray  for  the  scale,  thoroness  of  the  application  is  of  the 
utmost  importance.  If  twigs  here  or  there  are  left  without  a coat  of  the 
spray  material,  the  insects  which  are  on  them  will  soon  reinfest  the  tree. 

At  the  present  time  the  standard  spray  for  the  control  of  the  San  Jose 
scale  upon  deciduous  orchard  trees  is  lime  sulphur.  Commercial  concen- 
trated lime  sulphur  has  a specific  gravity  of  approximately  1.28.  One  gal- 
lon of  it  is  used  to  seven  gallons  of  water  which  reduces  the  specific  gravity 
to  1.04.  This  solution  is  then  applied  with  either  a barrel  or  power  spraying 
machine  during  the  dormant  season. 

Besides  controlling  the  San  Jose  scale  with  a dormant  spray  of  lime- 
sulphur,  many  other  pests,  such  as  Forbes  scale  and  aphids  are  also  con- 
trolled. 

One  of  the  important  reasons  why  the  San  Jose  scale  is  difficult  to  con- 
trol is  the  fact  that  it  attacks  so  many  of  the  deciduous  plants  including 
fruits,  ornamentals  and  shade  trees. 

Control  on  nursery  stock. — As  has  been  previously  explained  it  was 
thru  the  infestation  of  nursery  stock  that  the  San  Jose  scale  has  become  so 
widely  distributed  and  naturally  the  first  place  to  start  in  the  control  of  the 
pest  is  upon  nursery  stock. 

Probably  the  most  important  means  of  controlling  the  scale  upon 
nursery  stock  has  been  the  passing  of  laws  requiring  that  all  infested  stock 
be  destroyed  and  the  remainder  treated  under  the  direction  of  a competent 
man. 

Before  1913  Missouri  had  no  law  controlling  the  growing  or  trans- 
portation of  infested  nursery  stock,  and  as  a result  much  infested  stock  was 
sold  to  Missouri  farmers.  In  1913  an  effective  law  was  passed  and  has  been 
vigorously  enforced. 

Every  state  in  the  Union  has  a law  similar  to  the  Missouri  law  and  they 
have  done  much  to  prevent  further  spread  of  San  Jose  scale  and  other  dan- 
gerous insect  pests  and  diseases  as  well. 

Practically  all  states  require  the  use  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  in  the 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


9 


control  of  the  scale  on  nursery  stock  and  up  to  the  present  time  it  is  most 
widely  used. 

Some  nurserymen  prefer  to  dip  their  trees  in  a miscible  oil  rather  than 
fumigate  and  this  method  has,  to  a great  extent,  been  successful. 

In  fumigating  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  the  trees  are  dug  in  the  fall  or 
early  spring,  all  excessive  moisture  allowed  to  dry  from  the  tree  and  then 
placed  in  an  air  tight  box  or  room.  The  gas  is  generated  in  the  room  and 
the  trees  are  left  exposed  to  it  for  from  45  minutes  to  one  hour.  Special 
preparations  must  be  made,  such  as  building  an  air  tight  box  or  house,  in 
using  hydrocyanic-acid  gas.  The  gas  is  very  poisonous,  the  chemicals  are 
costly  and  it  is  easy  to  make  a mistake  in  mixing  them.  Under  certain 
conditions  the  gas  is  likely  to  injure  the  stock,  especially  the  more  tender 
species.  This  is  also  true  in  using  liquid  dips. 

Hydrocyanic-acid  gas  first  used. — Hydrocyanic-acid  gas  has  been  used 
in  collecting  jars  for  years  by  entomologists  to  kill  insects,  but  was  first 
used  for  the  destruction  of  scale  insects  by  D.  W.  Coquillett  in  the  orange 
groves  around  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  His  first  work  with  hydrocyanic- 
acid  gas  was  in  September  1886,  and  was  carried  on  at  this  time  for  the 
control  of  the  cottony  cushion  scale  on  citrus  trees.  Such  means  as  tobac- 
co smoke,  sulphur  fumes,  concussion  from  gun  powder,  heat,  muriatic  acid, 
carbonic  acid  gas,  chloroform,  arsenic,  bisulphide  of  carbon  and  other 
fumes  and  gases  were  tried,  but  none  was  so  successful  as  hydrocyanic-acid 
gas.  Dr.  F.  W.  Morse  of  the  University  of  California  also  began  studying 
the  control  of  the  cottony  cushion  scale  in  1887  and  as  a result  that  uni- 
versity gave  to  the  public,  in  bulletin  71,  the  first  knowledge  of  the  use  of 
hydrocyanic-acid  gas.  In  doing  this  first  work,  a tent  was  thrown  over  the 
tree  and  the  gas  generated  beneath  the  tent  by  putting  together  in  one  ves- 
sel sulphuric  acid,  water  and  dry  potassium  cyanide. 

All  of  this  work  done  in  California  was  upon  citrus  trees,  which  were  in 
full  foliage  and  a great  deal  of  burning  and  injury  resulted.  However,  the 
method  of  using  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  has  been  so  well  perfected  that  at 
the  present  time  it  is  comparatively  safe  to  fumigate  citrus  trees  which  are 
infested  with  white  fly  or  scale. 

The  California  agricultural  experiment  station,  under  the  direction  of 
Morse,  conducted  experiments  with  other  gases  as  insecticides  with  special 
reference  to  the  white  scale  (Icerya  purchasi).  The  following  is  a summary 
of  the  results  obtained,  as  set  forth  in  bulletin  70  of  the  California  agricul- 
tural experiment  station. 

Chlorine,  carbon  bisulphide,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  ammonia,  carbon 
menoxide,  aloxic  acid,  carbolic  acid  and  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  were  tried  and 
it  was  found  that  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  was  the  only  one  that  produced  suf- 
ficiently fatal  effects  as  to  warrant  a more  thoro  determination  of  the  time 
of  exposure  and  quantities  of  material  which  would  produce  the  best  results. 

Hydrocyanic-acid  gas  was  not  used  upon  deciduous  trees  until  1894, 
when  the  San  Jose  scale  was  found  upon  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  Charlottes- 
ville, Va.  and  Coquillett  was  detailed  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  to  conduct  experiments  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  on  these 
infested  trees.  The  results  of  the  first  experiments  were  so  satisfactory 
that  the  work  was  continued. 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


It  was  in  1898  that  it  was  first  suggested  that  hydrocyanic-acid  gas 
could  be  used  in  mills,  elevators  and  warehouses  for  the  destruction  of  in- 
jurious insects. 

Use  up  to  the  present  time. — Since  the  discovery  of  hydrocyanic-acid 
gas  as  an  insecticide  it  has  been  used  in  a number  of  different  ways. 

1.  To  fumigate  citrus  trees  infested  with  all  sorts  of  scale  insects. 

2.  To  fumigate  deciduous  fruit  trees,  including  nursery  stock,  for  the 
destruction  of  San  Jose  scale. 

2.  To  fumigate  deciduous  fruit  trees,  including  nursery  stock,  for  the 
destruction  of  San  Jose  scale. 

3.  To  fumigate  greenhouses  for  the  destruction  of  white  fly,  red  spider 
and  other  pests  on  greenhouse  plants. 

4.  To  fumigate  warehouses,  elevators,  mills  and  other  buildings  for  the 
destruction  of  various  insect  pests. 


Apparatus  for  fumigating  car  load  lots:  A tight  oil  canvas  is  placed 

over  the  frames.  The  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  generated  in  a tank  and  con- 
ducted through  a pipe  to  the  enclosure 


5.  To  fumigate  dwelling  houses,  railroad  coaches,  street  cars,  hotels 
and  similar  places  for  the  destruction  of  lice,  bedbugs,  clothes  moths  and 
household  pests. 

The  use  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  as  a fumigating  material  is  becoming 
more  extensive  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  all  of 
the  state  experiment  stations  recommend  it. 

Method  of  using. — The  most  general  method  practiced  at  the  present 
time  in  using  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  is  as  follows: 

One  fluid  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid  having  a specific  gravity  of  at  least 
1.83  is  poured  into  an  earthenware  crock,  wooden  bucket  or  tub,  containing 
3 fluid  ounces  of  water.  Into  this  mixture  1 ounce,  by  weight,  of  fused 
cyanide  of  potassium,  98-99  per  cent  pure,  is  added.  The  above  amounts  are 
used  for  every  100  cubic  feet  of  space.  In  fumigating  tender  growing 
plants,  the  above  formula  is  too  strong  and  has  to  be  weakened.  For  dor- 
mant trees,  mills,  elevators  and  the  like  the  1-1-3  formula  is  recommended 
by  both  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  practically  all  of 
the  state  experiment  stations. 

In  fumigating  nursery  stock  an  air  tight  box  or  house  is  necessary. 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


11 


The  trees  are  placed  ill  the  box  or  house.  The  water  and  sulphuric  acid 
are  mixed  in  an  earthen  jar  and  the  jar  placed  in  the  box  or  house.  The 
potassium  cyanide  is  then  dropped  in  and  the  box  or  house  closed  just  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  which  is  generated  is  deadly 
poisonous  and  the  person  doing  the  fumigating  must  be  very  careful  not 
to  breathe  any  of  it.  It  requires  about  45  minutes  to  fumigate  nursery  stock, 
altho  some  authorities  say  that  better  results  can  be  obtained  by  letting 
the  stock  remain  an  hour.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  fumigating  box  or 
house  is  opened  and  the  gas  allowed  to  escape  and  in  from  15  to  20  minutes 
* the  trees  can  be  safely  removed. 

It  is  never  advisible  to  fumigate  trees  while  they  are  damp  or  wet.  It  is 
claimed  that  under  such  conditions  the  gas  is  more  likely  to  injure  the  stock. 
However,  the  writer’s  experiments  to  date  fail  to  corroborate  this,  though 
they  do  show  that  less  scale  is  killed  under  those  conditions. 

Some  states  require  by  law  that  all  nursery  stock  grown  within  its 
borders  or  shipped  in  from  outside  nurseries  be  fumigated  and,,  as  a result, 
all  of  the  larger  nurseries  in  the  United  States  have  constructed  special 
fumigating  houses  or  boxes. 

Chemical  composition  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas. — In  fumigating  work 
hydrocyanic-acid  gas  is  generated,  as  has  already  been  explained,  by  placing 
together  potassium  cyanide  (KCN)  sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4)  and  water 
(H.O). 

The  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  sold  commercially,  has  a strength  known 
as  66°  Baume  which  corresponds  to  the  96  per  cent  pure  sulphuric  acid. 
Commercial  sulphuric  acid,  however,  contains  some  impurities  and  is  seldom 
more  than  93  or  94  per  cent  pure. 

The  potassium  cyanide  which  is  purchased  on  the  market  runs  about 
98  per  cent  pure. 

When  the  sulphuric  acid  and  the  potassium  cyanide  are  brought  to- 
gether, the  chemical  reaction  that  takes  place  is  as  follows: 

2 KCN  + H2SO4  = K2SO4  + 2 HCN 

In  the  above  reaction,  1 ounce  (avoirdupois)  of  potassium  cyanide  (100 
per  cent  pure)  requires  0.75  ounce  (avoirdupois)  sulphuric  acid  or  .81  ounce 
of  commercial  sulphuric  acid  containing  93  per  cent  sulphuric  acid  which 
would  be  equal  to  0.42  fluid  ounces. 

Under  conditions  met  with  in  fumigating  work,  the  above  reaction  can- 
not be  obtained  and  result  in  the  best  yield  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas.  More 
sulphuric  acid  must  be  used  and  this  causes  acid  potassium  sulphate  to  be 
formed  as  is  shown  in  the  following  equation: 

KCN  + H2SO4  = KHSO4  + HCN 

In  this  reaction  0.84  fluid  ounce  of  93  per  cent  sulphuric  acid  is  required 
for  each  ounce  (avoidupois)  of  potassium  cyanide.  This  amount  in  round 
numbers  equals  1 part  cyanide  to  1 part  acid  which  gives  the  best  results 
in  field  work.  In  order  to  get  the  best  yield  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  only 
two  parts  of  water  should  be  used,  but  in  field  practice  when  only  two  parts 
of  water  are  used,  the  residue  in  the  generating  jar  often  solidifies  and  in 
order  to  prevent  this,  three  parts  of  water  are  used.  Thus  the  1-1-3  formula 
is  used  in  fumigating  nursery  stock. 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  HYDROCYANIC-ACID  GAS 

Because  of  the  large  amount  of  damage  being  done  in  Missouri  by  the 
San  Jose  scale,  and  in  order  to  help  the  fruit  grower  and  nurserymen  to 
better  control  the  scale  and  thus  lessen  the  danger  of  further  dissemination 
of  the  pest,  the  writer  began  a series  of  experiments  in  the  fall  of  1915 
with  reference  to  the  control  of  the  scale  upon  nursery  stock. 

Some  of  the  nursery  stock  in  the  state  which  was  found  to  be  infested 
with  San  Jose  scale  was  brought  to  Columbia  where  the  experiments  were 
conducted. 

The  primary  object  of  the  investigation  was  to  determine  if  possible 
the  most  practical,  efficient  and  cheapest  method  to  use  in  controlling  the 
scale  on  nursery  stock  with  the  least  injury  to  the  trees  or  plants. 

In  Missouri  there  are  a number  of  nurserymen  who  grow  nursery  stock 
on  a small  scale  and  do  not  care  to  go  to  the  expense  of  building  an  ex- 
pensive fumigating  house  or  box  and  besides  many  object  to  using  hydro- 
cyanic-acid gas  because  of  its  very  poisonous  nature.  Several  of  these 
nurserymen  have  asked  repeatedly  about  the  possibilities  of  dipping  nurs- 
ery stock  in  a lime-sulphur  wash  or  a miscible  oil  for  the  control  of  San 
Jose  scale. 


Some  of  the  nursery  stock  which  was  used  in  the  experimental  work  at  the  Missouri  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station 


Method  of  procedure. — First,  during  the  fall  of  1915  the  following 
number  of  fruit  trees  and  plants  were  obtained:  Apple,  356  trees;  peach, 

164;  pear,  52,  and  plum,  52.  All  of  the  fruit  trees  were  two  years  old.  Of 
the  apple  trees  obtained,  260  were  heavily  infested  with  San  Jose  scale  and 
86  of  the  peach  trees  were  also  heavily  infested.  The  trees  were  dug  in  the 
fall  after  the  leaves  had  fallen  and  shipped  to  Columbia.  Most  of  the 
scale-infested  trees  showed  marked  weakness  caused  by  the  ravages  of  the 
pest;  otherwise  all  of  them  were  in  good  condition.  The  trees  were  heeled 
in  the  fall  and  left  until  March  21  and  22,  1916,  when  they  were  given  the 
different  treatments.  None  of  the  trees  died  during  the  winter. 

The  work  was  continued  during  1917.  On  April  5,  1917,  the  following 
two-year-old  trees  were  obtained,  all  of  which  were  heavily  infested  with 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


o 


San  Jose  scale:  Apple,  58  trees;  peach,  58,  and  plum,  5.  These  trees  had 
just  been  dug  from  the  nursery  row.  They  showed  weakness  from  the 
effects  of  the  scale,  but  were  otherwise  in  excellent  condition.  A part  of 
these  trees  were  treated  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  on  April  10,  1917. 

In  the  spring  of  1918  a small  nursery  was  started  on  the  experimental 
grounds  at  Columbia  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  trees  to  continue  scale 
control  investigations.  Both  peaches  and  apples  were  grown  and  in  the 
summer  of  1919  scale  infested  trees  were  placed  with  them  and  by  fall  the 
stock  was  all  heavily  infested.  In  March  1920  these  trees  were  used  in 
fumigating  and  dipping  experiments. 

As  has  already  been  explained,  one  fluid  ounce  66°  Baume  sulphuric 
acid,  1 ounce  potassium  cyanide  and  three  fluid  ounces  of  water  for  100  cubic 


■ 


Fumigating  Box  used  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Notice  the  cleats 
against  which  the  lid  fits.  These  cleats  are  covered  with  felt  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas. 

feet  is  most  commonly  used  in  fumigating  nursery  stock.  Some  of  the 
nurserymen  of  Missouri  had  complained  of  severe  burning  of  the  stock 
when  used  this  strong  so  two  strengths  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  were  used 
in  the  work  in  1916.  The  regular  1-1-3  formula  was  tried  and  a formula 
just  half  as  strong  ( V2-V2-IV2 ) was  also  tried. 

A fumigating  box  was  constructed  from  1 inch  cypress  lumber.  The 
box  was  made  7 feet  long,  3 feet  wide  and  2 feet  deep,  having  a total 
capacity  of  42  cubic  feet.  The  top  of  the  box  was  hinged  on  so  as  to  form 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


a lid.  Cleats  were  nailed  on  to  the  lid  so  as  to  fit  tightly  against  the  inside 
of  the  box  when  closed  and  these  cleats  were  covered  with  felt  so  as  to 
make  the  box  just  as  nearly  air  tight  as  possible. 

The  number  of  plants  to  be  treated  dry  with  the  1-1-3  formula  were 
dug,  the  dirt  removed  from  the  roots  and  placed  in  the  box.  The  sulphuric 
acid  was  weighed  out  and  placed  in  an  earthen  jar,  then  the  required 
amount  of  water  was  added  slowly  so  as  to  prevent  sputtering.  The  jar 
was  then  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  fumigating  box  in  such  a way  as  not 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  nursery  stock.  The  potassium  cyanide,  98  per 
cent  pure,  which  had  been  broken  up  into  small  pieces,  was  then  added  to 
the  mixture  and  the  lid  quickly  closed  and  clamped  down.  The  stock  was 
allowed  to  fumigate  for  45  minutes,  when  the  box  was  opened,  the  gas 
allowed  to  escape,  which  took  about  10  to  15  minutes.  The  plants  were 
then  removed  and  set  about  two  feet  apart  in  rows  3 feet  apart.  The  residue 
left  in  the  jar  is  very  poisonous  so  it  was  removed  and  buried  to  prevent 
anything  from  getting  hold  of  it. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  set  of  trees  were  removed  from  the  fumigating  box, 
a second  set  containing  the  same  number  of  plants  was  taken.  This  set  of 
plants  was  treated  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  above  set  with  the  ex- 
ception that  they  were  thoroly  dampened,  both  roots  and  tops,  before  being 
placed  in  the  box.  The  object  in  fumigating  this  set  of  wet  plants  was  to 
find  out  exactly  if  possible  to  what  extent  the  plants  would  be  injured  and 
also  if  the  effect  upon  the  scale  would  be  the  same  as  upon  the  scale  on  the 
dry  plants. 

The  third  set  of  plants  was  treated  exactly  the  same  as*the  first  except 
the  Vz-Yz-^-Yz  formula  was  used. 

A fourth  set  of  plants,  which  were  wet,  was  also  treated  with  the 
Yz-Yz- lYz  formula. 

Effect  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  upon  San  Jose  scale. — As  is  shown  by 
the  following  table,  eighty  apple  trees  with  scale,  were  treated  with  hydro- 
cyanic-acid  gas  in  1916. 


Table  1. — Apples  Treated  in  1916 


Date 

1916 

Treatment 

Condi- 

tion 

of 

trees 

Length 

of 

treat- 

ment, 

mm. 

No. 

trees 

treat- 

ed 

Per 

cent 

scale 

dead 

5/14/16 

Per  cent 
trees  dead 

5/26/16  4/4/1 7 

March  21 

HCN  1-1-3 

wet 

45 

20 

77.8 

10 

' 40 

HCN  1-1-3 

dry 

45 

20 

100 

10 

30 

HCN  Y2-Y2-IY2 

wet 

45 

20 

72.6 

10 

30 

HCN  Y2-Y2-IY2 

dry 

45 

20 

97.5 

25 

55 

Check 

20 

38.9 

0 

60 

On  May  14,  1916,  a count  was  made  to  determine  the  effectiveness  of 
the  hydrocyanic-acid  gas.  In  making  the  counts  on  these  trees,  several 
heavily  infested  twigs  were  collected  from  several  of  the  different  trees. 
The  twigs  were  placed  under  a high  power  binocular  and  the  numbers  of 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


15 


dead  and  live  insects  counted.  From  these  numbers,  the-  percentage  of  live 
insects  was  determined.  On  May  25,  1916,  additional  counts  were  made  and 
on  May  26,  1916,  the  number  of  trees  which  were  dead  was  counted. 

The  results  obtained  show  clearly  that  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  used  at 
the  strength  of  1-1-3  and  V2-V2-IV2  will  kill  San  Jose  scale  on  dry  plants 
better  than  on  moist  plants.  Also  the  dry  plants  suffered  more  from  the 
treatment  than  the  wet  ones.  The  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  gave  best  results 
when  used  at  the  rate  of  1-1-3  upon  dry  trees.  Upon  the  other  three  sets 
live  scales  were  found,  the  larger  percentage  being  upon  the  trees  treated 
while  damp.  All  of  these  trees  were  heavily  infested  with  the  scale  at  the 
time  of  treating  and  their  vitality  had  been  weakened  a great  deal  and  this 
is  undoubtedly  the  reason  why  such  a large  percentage  died.  The  normal 
mortality  of  scale  on  the  check  trees  was  38.9  per  cent  and  the  high  mor- 
tality of  the  trees  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  effects  of  the  pest. 

On  April  9,  1917,  the  following  trees  were  treated  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas,  1-1-3. 


Table  2. — Apples  Treated  in  1917 


Date 

1917 

Treatment 

Condition 
of  trees 

Length  of 
treatment, 
min. 

No.  trees 
treated 

Per  cent 
scale  dead 
4/20/17 

April  9 

HCN  1-1-3 

wet 

45 

8 

100 

HCN  1-1-3 

dry 

45 

8 

100 

Check 

.... 

4 

75 

This  test  in  1917  was  made  in  order  to  check  or  substantiate  the  results 
obtained  in  1916.  On  April  20,  1917,  the  trees  were  thoroly  examined  for 
scale  and  no  live  scale  whatsoever  could  be  found  on  either  the  trees  wet 
or  dry.  In  comparing  the  above  treatments  with  the  check  it  is  clearly 
shown  that  good  results  were  obtained  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  used  at 
the  rate  of  1-1-3. 

On  March  22,  1920,  additional  experiments  were  performed  with  HCN 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  table. 


Table  3. — Apples  Treated  in  1920 


Date 

1920 

Treatment 

Condition 
of  trees 

Length 

of 

treat- 

min. 

No.  of 
trees 
treated 

Per 

cent 

scale 

dead 

5/20/20 

Per 

cent 

trees 

dead 

11/8/20 

March  23 

HCN  1-1-3 

wet 

50 

34 

100 

44.1 

March  22 

HCN  1-1-3 

dry 

50 

34 

100 

50.5 

March  27 

HCN  2-2-6 

wet 

50 

34 

100 

70.5 

March  26 

HCN  2-2-6 

dry 

50 

34 

100 

73.5 

March  29 

HCN*  l-U/2-3 

wet 

50 

34 

100 

70.5 

March  29 

HCN*  l-iy2-3 

dry 

50 

34 

100 

50.0 

Check 

.... 

68 

76 

94.2 

*In  this  treatment  Sodium  cyanide  (NaCN)  was  used. 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


As  the  table  shows  in  1920  potassium  cyanide  was  used  twice  as  strong 
as  is  recommended.  Also  sodium  cyanide  (NaCn)  was  used.  Sodium  cyanide, 
which  is  stronger  than  potassium  cyanide  and  which  is  ordinarily  used  at 
the  strength  of  one  ounce  sodium  syanide,  one  and  one-half  ounces  sul- 
phuric acid  and  three  ounces  water.  Every  treatment  of  cyanide  used  in 
1920  killed  100  per  cent  of  the  scale.  As  to  the  effect  of  the  treatments  upon 
the  trees  the  HCN  used  at  the  rate  of  1-1-3  it  seems  causd  less  injury  both 
upon  wet  and  dry  trees. 

Effect  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  upon  scale  on  peaches. — Somewhat  bet- 
ter results  were  obtained  on  peaches.  From  counts  made  on  May  25,  as  is 
shown  by  the  table,  three  of  the  treatments  gave  perfect  results  so  far  as 
controlling  the  scale  was  concerned. 


Table  4. — Peaches  Treated  in  1916 


Date 

Treatment 

Condi- 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per  cent 

tion 

of 

trees 

cent 

trees  dead 

of 

treat- 

treat- 

scale 

trees 

ment, 

ed 

dead 

1916 

min. 

5/14/16  5/26/16  4/4/1 7 

March  21 

HCN 

wet 

45 

8 

95.4 

37.5  87.5 

hcn  y2-y2-iy2 

dry 

45 

8 

100 

37.5  62.5 

HCN  1-1-3 

wet 

45 

8 

100 

12.5  50 

HCN  1-1-3 

dry 

45 

8 

100 

87.5  87  5 

Check 

.... 

8 

100 

25  62.5 

Hydrocyanic-acid  gas 

used  at  the 

rate  of 

1/2-1/2-l1/2  on  damp  trees  gave 

the  poorest  results.  A larger  number  of  the 

: trees 

treated  dry 

were  dead 

May  26  than  was  the  case 

with  those 

treated 

wet. 

Table 

5. — Peaches  Treated  in  1917 

Date 

Treatment 

Condition  Length  of 

No.  trees 

Per  cent 

of  trees  treatment, 

treated 

scale  dead 

3917 

min. 

4/20/17 

April  9 

HCN-1-1-3 

wet 

45 

4 

100 

HCN-1-1-3 

dry 

45 

4 

100 

Check 

.... 

6 

50 

In  1917  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  proved  to  be  effective  in  killing  the  scale 
on  peaches  upon  both  wet  and  dry  trees.  Fifty  per  cent  of  the  scale  on 
the  check  trees  had  passed  the  winter  in  safety. 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


17 


Table;  6. — Peaches  Treated  in  1920 


Date 

Treatment 

Condi- 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

tion 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

of 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

trees 

ment,  treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

min. 

5/26/20 

11/8/2C 

March  29 

HCN  1-1-3 

wet 

50 

5 

100 

20 

March  22 

HCN  1-1-3 

dry 

50 

5 

100 

20 

March  27 

HCN  2-2-6 

wet 

50 

5 

100 

100 

March  26 

HCN  2-2-6 

dry 

50 

5 

100 

0 

March  29 

HCN*  l-l Ms-3 

wet 

50 

5 

100 

80 

March  29 

HCN*  l-iy2-3 

dry 

50 

5 

100 

60 

Check 

10 

85.67 

100 

*In  this 

treatment  Sodium  cyanide  (NaCN)  was  used. 

One  hundred  per  cent  of 

all  the  scale  was  killed  in 

every  case  in  1920. 

Effect 

of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  upon  San  Jose  scale 

on  pear. 

Table  7. 

— Pears 

Treated  in 

1920 

Date 

Treatment 

Condi- 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

tion 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

of 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

trees  . 

ment,  treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

min. 

5/26/20 

11/8/20 

March  23 

HCN  1-1-3 

wet 

50 

2 

100 

50 

March  22 

HCN  1-1-3 

dry 

50 

2 

100 

0 

March  27 

HCN  2-2-6 

wet 

50 

2 

100 

50 

March  26 

HCN  2-2-6 

dry 

50 

2 

100 

100 

March  29 

HCN*  1-11/2-3 

wet 

50 

2 

100 

50 

March  29 

HCN*  1-11/2-3 

dry 

50 

2 

100 

0 

Check 

4 

74.68 

0 

*In  this 

treatment  Sodium  cyanide  (NaCN)  was  used. 

Practically  the  same  results  were 

obtained  upon  pear  as  upon  peaches 

and  apples. 

Effect  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  upon  San  Jose  scale 

on  plum  - 

Table  8.- 

—Plums 

Treated  in 

1917 

Date 

Treatment 

Condition  Length  of  No.  trees 

Per  cent 

of  trees  treatment,  treated  scale  dead 

1917 

min. 

4/20/17 

April  9 

HCN  1-1-3 

wet 

45 

1 

100 

HCN  1-1-3 

dry 

45 

1 

100 

Check 

.... 

1 

57  • 

18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 

As  to  the  effectiveness  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  upon  San  Jose  scale,  the 
above  tables  show  that  it  might  not  in  every  case  kill  all  of  the  scale,  es- 
pecially when  used  at  a strength  weaker  than  1-1-3.  When  used  at  a weaker 
strength  it  will  kill  a large  percentage  of  the  insects  but  not  enough  to 
recommend  its  use. 

From  the  summary  it  is  readily  seen  that  more  of  the  trees  died  when 
treated  with  the  stronger  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  than  with  the  weaker.  It  is 
a known  fact  that  plants  treated  with  a high  strength  of  hydrocyanic-acid 
gas  will  be  injured  and  if  the  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  is  too  strong  it  will  kill 
the  trees.  Whether  or  not  it  takes  the  gas  longer  than  a month  to  effect  a 
tree  enough  to  kill  it,  is  not  known  but  it  stands  to  reason  that  if  the  gas 
does  injure  a plant,  the  1-1-3  strength  would  cause  more  injury  than  the 
V2-Y2-IY2  strength. 

As  has  been  shown,  the  greater  strength  gave  better  results  in  con- 
trolling the  scale  than  the  weaker  and  as  far  as  killing  the  trees  is  con- 
cerned, there  is  not  enough  difference  in  the  two  strengths  to  amount  to  a 
great  deal.  Since  the  control  of  the  scale  is  of  the  most  importance,  it  is 
undoubtedly  advisable  to  use  the  1-1-3  formula  when  fumigating  nursery 
stock. 

Another  very  important  thing  that  was  brought  out  in  this  work  is  the 
effect  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  upon  wet  and  dry  plants.  It  is  the  general 
belief  among  nurserymen  that  if  plants  are  treated  with  hydrocyanic-acid 
gas  while  wet,  or  damp,  the  moisture  on  the  plant  will  absorb  a large 
quantity  of  the  gas,  which  in  turn,  will  cause  a great  deal  of  burning  and 
injury  to  the  plant.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  work,  a larger  percentage 
of  those  plants  treated  dry  died  than  those  treated  wet  which  is  contra- 
dictory to  the  general  belief  of  nurserymen  and  experiment  station  workers. 

In  treating  plants  with  ether  to  stimulate 
growth,  a larger  dose  of  ether  must  be  used  if 
plants  are  damp  or  the  exposure  must  be  longer 
if  the  same  results  are  derived  as  would  be  ob- 
tained if  the  plants  were  dry.  This  may  also 
be  true  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  and  as  the  re- 
sults obtained  indicate,  a larger  dose  of  hydro- 
cyanic-acid gas  must  be  used  on  damp  plants 
to  obtain  the  same  results  as  on  dry  plants  with 
a smaller  dose.  Also,  fewer  scale  were  killed 
upon  the  damp  trees  than  on  the  dry,  which 
indicates  that  possibly  the  same  thing  holds  true 
in  regard  to  animals  as  to  plants. 

Since  the  scale  was  killed  better  on  stock 
treated  dry  than  on  stock  treated  wet,  and  as 
the  destruction  of  scale  is  of  prime  importance, 
nursery  stock  should  not  be  fumigated  with 
hydrocyanic-acid  gas  when  wet,  even  tho  the 
injury  to  the  plants  may  be  greater  when  treat- 
ed dry. 


A well  constructed  fumigating 
house.  It  is  built  of  tongue  and 
grooved  lumber  and  cleats  cover 
the  joints  on  the  outside 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


19 


CARBON  BISULPHIDE  FIRST  USED 

Carbon  bisulphide  was  first  used  as  an  insecticide  by  Louis  Doyere,  a 
former  professor  of  Agriculture  at  the  Institute  of  Versailles,  in  1856  and 
1857.  He  used  small  amounts  of  the  liquid  on  grain  to  destroy  the  weevils 
and  their  eggs.  He  also  demonstrated  that  carbon  bisulphide  would  not 
injure  the  grain.  In  1876,  Cornu  and  Moulleferet,  both  French  investigators, 
demonstrated  that  carbon  bisulphide  could  be  successfully  used  upon  grape 
phylloxera,  caterpillars,  butterflies,  cicadas,  wasps  and  plant  lice. 

Use  up  to  present  time.— After  1876  the  popularity  of  carbon  bisulphide 
as  an  insecticide  became  great  and  many  experiments  were  carried  on  with 
it.  It  was  found  to  be  an  effective  and  cheap  insecticide  and  easy  to  use. 
Today  carbon  bisulphide  is  widely  used  for  the  following: 

1.  To  kill  grape  phylloxera  on  the  roots  of  the  grape. 

2.  Root  maggot  of  different  sorts  on  the  roots  of  different  plants. 

3.  For  destruction  of  ants. 

4.  To  kill  grubs  and  mole  crickets. 

5.  For  the  destruction  of  burrowing  animals,  such  as  moles,  prairie 
dogs,  gophers,  etc. 

6.  For  the  destruction  of  sucking  insects  upon  small  plants. 

7.  For  fumigating  buildings  containing  stored  cereals  to  destroy  the 
insect  pests. 

8.  For  destroying  household  pests,  museum  pests  and  similar  pests. 

In  fact  carbon  bisulphide  is  the  most  extensively  used  fumigant  today 
for  destroying  the  more  easily  killed  insects. 

Methods  of  using. — Carbon  bisulphide  is  easy  to  obtain  and  easy  to 
use.  Any  one  who  is  willing  to  take  a few  precautions  can  use  carbon  bi- 
sulphide with  perfect  safety.  Carbon  bisulphide  is  put  up  in  tight  tin  cans 
or  steel  drums  and  can  be  purchased  in  small  quantities.  It  is  very  volatile 
and  diffuses  through  the  air  rapidly.  The  gas  is  heavier  than  air  and  this 
factor  is  taken  advantage  of  when  using  carbon  bisulphide.  In  fumigating 
bins  containing  cereals  or  similar  places,  shallow  pans  are  usually  employed. 
The  pans  are  set  on  top  of  the  grain  or  on  anything  near  the  ceiling.  Better 
results  are  obtained  if  the  place  to  be  fumigated  is  made  air  tight  and  the 
temperature  is  70°F.  or  above.  The  carbon  bisulphide  is  poured  in  the 
pans,  the  doors  closed  and  the  cracks  stopped  so  as  to  prevent  the  gas  from 
escaping  from  the  building.  Different  authorities  vary  as  to  the  rate  at 
which  carbon  bisulphide  should  be  used.  In  Kansas  the  following  amounts 
have  been  recommended  and  other  stations  report  similar  amounts: 

At  90° F.  1 lb.  CS2  is  sufficient  for  every  500  cu.  ft. 

At  80° F.  1 lb.  CS2  is  sufficient  for  every  400  cu.  ft. 

At  70° F.  1 lb.  CS2  is  sufficient  for  every  300  cu.  ft. 

If  used  in  an  open  bin,  the  above  amounts  should  be  greatly  increased 

At  a temperature  below  60°F.  it  is  not  advisable  to  fumigate  with 
carbon  bisulphide  at  all  for  it  does  not  evaporate  sufficiently  fast  below  this 
temperature. 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


The  bin  or  building  should  be  allowed  to  fumigate  for  from  36  to  48 
hours. 

For  fumigating  seeds  with  carbon  bisulphide,  from  1 to  1V2  pounds 
should  be  used  to  every  1000  cubic  feet. 

Carbon  bisulphide  has  been  tried  a number  of  times  upon  nursery  stock 
for  destroying  scale  insects,  but  up  to  the  present  time  has  proven  unsatis- 
factory. 

Chemical  composition  of  carbon  bisulphide. — According  to  W.  E.  Hinds, 
of  the  United  State  sDepartment  of  Agriculture,  Farmers’  Bulletin  145,  “the 
chemical  sy^mbol  of  carbon  bisulphide  is  CS2.  Its  molecules  consist  of  one 
atom  of  carbon  united  with  two  atoms  of  sulphur.  The  specific  gravity  of 
the  liquid  is  1.29.  The  vapor  is  2.63  times  as  heavy  as  atmospheric  air.  The 
pure  article  volatilizes  rapidly  and  completely  when  exposed  to  the  air.  The 
liquid  boils  at  115°F. 

“The  vapor  takes  fire  in  air  at  about  300° F.  and  burns  with  a faint  blue 
flame,  scarcely  visible  in  daylight,  but  evolving  considerable  heat  and  de- 
composing the  carbon  bisulphide  into  carbon  dioxide  (CO2)  and  sulphur 
dioxide  (SO2).  The  latter  is  the  familiar  gas  given  off  by  the  burning  of 
sulphur  matches  and  is  a strongly  poisonous  suffocating  gas,  which  should 
not  be  inhaled.  Carbon  bisulphide  vapor  mixed  with  three  times  its  volume 
of  oxygen,  or  an  amount  of  air  containing  that  amount  of  oxygen,  forms  a 
mixture  which  is  very  highly  explosive  upon  ignition.  As  21  per  cent  of  the 
air  is  oxygen,  one  volume  of  liquid  carbon  bisulphide  evaporated  in  5,357 
volumes  of  air  would  form  such  a mixture.  An  atmosphere  composed  of 
one  volume  of  carbon  bisulphide  vapor  to  approximately  14.3  volumes  of 
air  is  liable  to  violent  explosion  in  the  presence  of  fire  of  any  kind  whatever, 
or  a temperature  of  about  300° F.  without  flame.  This  is  about  the  maxi- 
mum danger  point  from  explosion  in  the  use  of  carbon  bisulphide.” 

The  higher  the  temperature,  the  more  carbon  bisulphide  will  be  taken 
up  by  the  air. 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  CARBON  BISULPHIDE 

As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  carbon  bisulphide  is  probably  the  most 
generally  used  insecticide  for  fumigating,  especially  for  such  insects  as 
grain  weevil.  It  has  been  tried  to  some  extent  upon  nursery  stock  for  the 
control  of  San  Jose  scale,  but  so  far  satisfactory-  results  have  not  been  re- 
ported. Carbon  bisulphide  is  cheaper  than  hydrocyanic-acid  gas,  easier  to 
handle  and,  used  as  a poison,  does  not  act  in  an  effective  way  so  quickly 
which  makes  it  less  dangerous  for  the  person  handling  it. 

Object. — The  idea  in  using  carbon  bisulphide  was  to  determine  if  possi- 
ble, whether  or  not  it  could  be  used  at  'all  for  destroying  San  Jose  scale 
upon  live  plants  without  injury  to  the  plants.  Owing  to  its  cheapness  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  used  as  compared  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas, 
carbon  bisulphide  would  be  a great  deal  more  desirable  provided  the  same 
results  could  be  obtained. 

Procedure. — The  same  fumigating  box  was  used  with  the  carbon  bisul- 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


21 


phide  as  with  the  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  and,  as  shown  by  the  following 
table,  the  same  number  of  trees  were  used.  The  first  dry  and  the  first  wet 
set  of  trees  were  treated  for  an  hour  with  carbon  bisulphide  at  the  rate  of 
1 pound  of  the  insecticide  to  100  cubic  feet  of  space.  Sets  No.  3 and  4 were 
treated  for  an  hour  also,  but  the  carbon  bisulphide  was  used  at  the  rate  of 
IV2  pounds  to  the  100  cubic  feet. 

In  treating  the  trees,  each  set  was  placed  in  the  fumigating  box  sep- 
arately, as  with  the  hydrocyanic-acid  gas.  Near  the  top  of  the  box  a shelf 
was  constructed  upon  which  a shallow  pan  was  placed.  The  nursery  stock 
was  placed  in  the  box,  the  required  amount  of  carbon  bisulphide  poured 
into  the  pan  and  the  lid  closed. 

Eighty  apple  trees  heavily  infested  with  San  Jose  scale  were  treated 
with  carbon  bisulphide  as  is  shown  by  the  following  table. 


Table 

9. — Apples  Treated 

IN  1916 

Date 

Treatment 

Condi-  Length 

No. 

Per 

Per  cent 

tion  of 

trees 

cent 

trees  dead 

of  treat- 

treat- 

scale 

trees  ment, 

ed 

dead 

193  6 

min. 

5/25/16 

5/26/16  4/4/17 

March  21 

CS2  1-100 

dry  60 

20 

92.3 

30.5  70 

March  21 

CS2  1-100 

wet  60 

20 

88.2 

15  50 

March  21 

CS2  lMs-100 

dry  60 

20 

77.1 

10  45 

March  21 

CS2  li/2-lOO 

wet  60 

20 

83.9 

10  40 

Check 

20 

38.9 

0 60 

As  is 

shown,  counts  made  May  14  and  25 

definitely  show 

that  carbon 

bisulphide  used  at  a strength  of  either  1 to  100  or  iy2  to  100  will  not  control 

scale.  As  compared  with  the  check,  however,  it  is  evident  that 

a number  of 

the  insects 

were  killed  but  not  enough  to  warrant  its 

use. 

On  April  9,' 1917,  the 

following  trees  were  treated  with  carbon  bisul- 

phide,  1 y2 

to  100. 

Table 

10. — Apples  Treated 

in  1917 

Date 

Treatment 

Condition  Length  of 

No.  trees 

Per  cent 

of  trees  treatment, 

treated 

scale  dead 

1917 

m 

in. 

4/20/17 

April  9 

CS2  1 Ms-100 

wet  60 

8 

96.6 

CS2  li/2-lOO 

dry  60 

8 

94.6 

Check 

4 

75.0 

The  results  obtained  in  1917  are  practically  the  same  as  those  obtained 
in  1916  and  they  also  show  that  carbon  bisulphide  used  at  the  rate  of  1}4  to 
100  will  not  control  San  Jose  scale. 


22  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


Table  11. — Peaches  Treated  in  1916 


Date 

Treatment 

Condi-  Length 

No. 

Per 

Per  cent 

tion  of 

trees 

cent 

trees  dead 

of  treat- 

treat- 

scale 

trees  ment, 

ed 

dead 

1916 

min. 

5/25/16 

5/26/16  4/4/1 7 

March  21 

CS2  1-100 

wet  60 

8 

100 

62.5  75 

CS2  1-100 

wet  60 

8 

100 

62.5  87.5 

cs2  iy2-ioo 

wet  60 

8 

100 

37.5  75 

cs2  iy2-ioo 

dry  60 

8 

94.8 

30  87.5 

Check 

8 

100 

25  62.5 

The  results  obtained 

on  the  peach  also 

show 

that  carbon  bisulphide 

will  not  entirely  control  San  Jose  scale  when 

used  at 

the  rate  of  1V2  to  100. 

However, 

these  results  are  much  better  than 

those  obtained  upon  the  apple 

which  is  ] 

probably  due  to 

the  fact  that  most 

of  the  heavily  in 

fested  peach 

trees  died 

, which  made  it 

impossible  to  get  as  good 

a count. 

The  peaches 

that  lived 

were  not  so  heavily  infested. 

Table 

12. — Peaches  Treated  in  1917 

Date 

Treatment 

Condition  Length  of 

No.  trees 

; Per  cent 

of  trees  treatment, 

, treated 

scale  dead 

1917 

min. 

4/20/17 

April  9 

cs2  iy>-ioo 

wet 

60 

4 

100 

cs2  iy2-ioo 

dry 

60 

4 

100 

Check 

6 

50 

No  live  scale  could  be  found  upon  the  peach  trees  treated  which  was 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  as  a result  of  the  treatment  practically  all  of 
the  young  tender  growth,  which  was  the  most  heavily  infested  part  of  the 
trees,  had  died. 

It  will  also  be  noticed  that  a larger  per  cent  of  the  plants  treated  wet 
died,  both  at  the  end  of  the  second  month  and  at  the  end  of  the  first  year. 
However,  the  difference  was  not  very  great.  With  hydrocyanic-acid  gas 
more  of  the  plants  treated  dry  died.  It  may  be  that  carbon  bisulphide  has 
an  altogether  different  physiological  effect  upon  the  plant,  especially  in  the 
presence  of  moisture.  A larger  percentage  of  the  .scale  on  the  trees  treated 
wet  were  killed  which  seems  to  further  indicate  that  carbon  bisulphide 
used  in  the  presence  of  moisture  is  more  active. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  carbon  bisulphide  did  not  in  any  case  completely 
control  the  San  Jose  scale  upon  apple  trees,  and  in  only  five  out  of  six 
cases  upon  the  peach,  and  since  the  percentage  of  injury  to  the  plants  was 
very  great,  its  use  as  a fumigating  material  upon  nursery  stock  should  be 
discouraged. 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


23 


LIME-SULPHUR  FIRST  USED 

On  page  six,  under  “Control  in  the  Orchard,”  a discussion  of  the 
first  use  of  lime-sulphur  for  the  control  of  insects  is  given. 

F.  A.  Sirrine  of  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  was  prob- 
ably the  first  to  dip  nursery  stock  for  the  control  of  San  Jose  scale.  He 
dipped  some  nursery  stock  in  1894  on  Long  Island  with  a whale-oil  soap 
preparation.  Lime-sulphur  was  probably  first  used  as  a dip  for  nursery 
stock  for  the  control  of  the  scale  by  Professor  C.  V.  Close  of  the  Deleware 
Experiment  Station  in  1903. 

Used  up  to  present  time. — Since  1894  a large  number  of  experiments 
have  been  made  with  lime-sulphur  as  a tree  dip  for  the  control  of  San  Jose 
scale  but  none  have  been,  on  the  whole,  entirely  successful.  In  some  cases 
the  scale  was  controlled  but  the  most  serious  objection  to  using  it  was  the 
fact  that  in  nearly  every  case  the  plants  were  injured  to  a greater  or  less 
extent.  Although  lime-sulphur  is  used  almost  altogether  for  controlling 
San  Jose  scale  on  old  trees,  it  has  never  proven  to  be  a practical  success  for 
dipping  nursery  stock. 

Methods  for  using. — When  lime-sulphur  is  used  upon  nursery  stock  as 
a spray  for  the  control  of  San  Jose  scale,  it  is  during  the  dormant  season 
while  the  trees  are  still  in  the  nursery  row.  It  is  applied  at  the  usual  rate, 
the  same  as  recommended  for  mature  trees,  1 to  7,  and  is  put  on  with  a 
spraying  machine,  either  hand  or  power.  Most  large  nurseries  have  espe- 
cially constructed  spraying  machines  which  are  built  so  as  to  be  easily 
gotten  between  nursery  rows. 

When  lime-sulphur  or  any  other  material  is  used  for  dipping  nursery 
stock  a vat  is  constructed  or  a trough  made  which  is  large  enough  to  hold 
sufficient  liquid  to  immerse  an  entire  tree. 

Chemical  composition  of  lime-sulphur. — Lime-sulphur  is  made  by  boil- 
ing in  water  slaked  rock  lime  containing  not  less  than  95  per  cent  calcium 
oxide  and  flowers  of  sulphur.  A very  complicated  chemical  reaction  takes 
place  when  lime  and  sulphur  are  boiled  together  in  water.  The  sulphur  (S) 
combines  with  the  calcium  (Ca)  in  the  lime  (CaO),  in  varying  amounts,  with 
the  result  that  two  compounds  are  formed — calcium  tetrasulphide  (CaSi), 
containing  76  per  cent  of  sulphur.  Also  a small  quantity  of  thiosulphate 
(CaS203)  is  formed.  These  compounds  formed  are  soluble  in  water  and  it  is 
to  them  that  the  insecticidal  value  of  the  mixture  is  due.  The  higher  the 
percentage  of  pentasulphide,  the  more  effective  is  the  mixture.  In  making 
the  lime-sulphur  solution  it  is  necessary  to  boil  it  for  an  hour  in  order  to 
form  a complete  chemical  union  of  the  lime  and  sulphur.  Two  parts  of  sul- 
phur combine  with  one  part  of  lime  and  in  making  the  solution,  twice  as  much 
sulphur  as  lime  should  be  used. 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  LIME-SULPHUR 

As  the  lime-sulphur  wash  has  become  the  most  standard  spray  for  the 
control  of  San  Jose  scale  on  infested  fruit  trees,  the  writer  saw  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  be  used  to  dip  infested  nursery  stock. 


24  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


Object. — The  object  in  using  lime-sulphur  was  to  determine  definitely, 
if  possible,  its  exact  efficiency  for  killing  scale  on  nursery  stock  and  its  in- 
jurious effects,  if  any,  upon  the  plants.  Lime-sulphur  is  the  cheapest  ma- 
terial used  in  the  control  of  San  Jose  scale  and  as  no  fumes  are  produced, 
it  is  less  dangerous  to  use  than  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  or  carbon  bisulphide. 

Procedure. — First  a water  tight  wooden  V-shaped  trough  was  made,  9 
feet  long  and  8 inches  deep.  This  trough  held  with  ease  8 gallons  of  the 
solution.  The  number  of  trees  to  be  dipped  were  divided  into  four  sets. 

In  the  first  set  the  tops  and  trunk,  down  to  the  roots  only,  were  dipped 
and  those  trees  dipped  in  1916  and  1920  were  immersed  and  immediately 
removed,  while  those  dipped  in  1917  were  left  immersed  for  five  minutes. 
With  the  second  set  of  trees  the  tops  and  roots  both  were  dipped.  With  the 
first  two  sets  lime-sulphur  was  used  at  the  rate  of  1 gallon  to  9 gallons  of 
water.  The  third  and  fourth  sets  were  treated  exactly  as  the  first  two 
except  the  lime  sulphur  was  used  at  the  rate  of  1 gallon'  to  7 gallons  of 
water. 

After  the  trees  had  been  dipped  they  were  allowed  to  drain  for  a few 
minutes,  then  set  out. 

Effect  of  lime-sulphur  upon  San  Jose  scale. — As  shown  by  the  following 
table,  forty  apple  trees,  heavily  infested  with  San  Jose  scale,  were  dipped 
in  the  lime-sulphur  solution. 


Table  13.— Apples  Treated  in  1916 


Date 

1916 

Insect- 

icide 

Parts 

treated 

trees 

Length 

of 

treat- 

ment, 

min. 

No. 

trees 

treat- 

ed 

Per 

cent 

scale 

dead 

5/25/16 

Per  cent 
trees  dead 

5/26/16  4/4/17 

March  21 

L.  S.  1-9 

tops 

inst. 

10 

100 

20 

50 

L.  S.  1-9 

t.  & r * 

inst. 

10 

100 

30 

70 

L.  S.  1-7 

tops 

inst. 

10 

99.6 

10 

70 

L.  S.  1-7 

t.  & r * 

inst. 

10 

93.6 

30 

50 

Check 

20 

38.9 

0 

60 

^Both  tops  and  roots  dipped. 


These  results  show  that  lime-sulphur  will,  to  a very  large  extent,  con- 
trol San  Jose  scale  on  nursery  stock  but  that  the  control  may  not  be  com- 
plete. Every  tree  was  thoroly  dipped,  care  being  taken  that  every  branch 
and  twig  was  completely  wet  to  the  top,  and  the  writer  is  convinced  that 
none  of  the  insects  escaped  immersion.  Also  a count  of  the  scale  was  made 
from  every  tree  and  as  shown  by  the  results  a very  small  percentage  was 
alive  a month  after  treatment.  So  far  as  the  strength  of  the  solution  is 
concerned,  the  weaker  gave  the  best  results;  however,  there  is  very  little 
difference  in  the  strength  of  the  two  solutions  used  and  the  fact  that  the 
weaker  solution  gave  the  better  results  if  of  little  significance. 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


25 


In  order  to  verify  the  above  results,  the  following  trees  were  treated 
in  1917  with  lime-sulphur  at  a strength  of  1-7. 


Table  14. — Apples  Treated  in  1917 


Date 

Insect- 

Parts 

Length  of 

No.  trees 

Per  cent 

icide 

treated 

treatment, 

treated 

scale  dead 

1917 

min. 

4/20/1917 

April 

9 L.  S.  1-7 

tops 

5 

6 

100 

L.  S.  1-7 

t.  & r. 

5 

6 

100 

Check 

5 

4 

75 

In 

1920  besides  using 

commercial 

lime-sulphur 

in  which 

to  dip  the 

frees, 

soluable  sulphur,  dry 

lime-sulphu: 

r and  barium 

tetrichloride  sulphide 

were  used.  The*  last  three  named  compounds  have  been  placed  on  the 
■market  and  are  sold  as  scale  remedies.  The  following  table  shows  the  results 
obtained  in  1920  with  these  different  materials  on  scaly  apple  trees. 


Table 

15. — Apples 

Treated 

in  1920 

Date 

Treatment 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

» 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment, 

treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

3/20/20 

11/18/20 

March 

27 

1 gal.  lime- 
sulphur  to 
9 gal.  H20 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

34 

96.62 

91.1 

March 

27 

1 gal.  lime 

tops 

inst. 

34 

99.66 

44.1 

sulphur  to 
9 gal.  H2O 

March 

27 

1 lb.  soluble 
sulphur  to 
4 gal.  H2O 

tops 

inst. 

34 

97.34 

52.9 

March 

24 

12  lbs.  dry 
lime  sulphur 
to  50  gal.  H2O 

tops 

inst. 

34 

100 

50 

March 

25 

14  lb.  Barium 
tetrichloride 

tops 

inst. 

34 

98.53 

67.6 

sulphide  to  50 
gal.  H2O 
Check 

68 

76 

94.2 

Of  the  above  materials  used  dry  lime-sulphur  used  at  the  rate  of  12 
^pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water  gave  the  best  results. 


26  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


Table  16. — Peaches  Treated  in  1916 


Date 

1916 

Insect- 

icide 

Parts 

treated 

of 

trees 

Length 

of 

treat- 

ment 

min. 

No. 

trees 

treat- 

ed 

Per 

cent 

scale 

dead 

5/4/16 

Per  cent 
trees  dead 

5/26/16  4/4/17 

March  21 

L.  S.  1-9 

tops 

inst. 

4 

100 

25 

25 

L.  S.  1-9 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

4 

100 

25 

25 

L.  S.  1-7 

tops 

inst. 

4 

94.3 

12.5 

100 

L.  S.  1-7 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

4 

100 

12.5 

100 

Check 

8 

100 

25 

62.5 

Practically  the  same  results  were  obtained  upon  the  peach  in  1916  as 
upon  apple. 


Table 

17. — Peaches 

Treated 

in  1917 

Date 

Insect- 

Parts 

Length  of  No 

. trees 

Per  cent 

icide 

treated 

treatment,  treated  scale  dead 

1917 

min. 

4/20/17 

May  4 

L.  S.  1-7 

tops 

5 

9 

100 

L.  S.  1-7 

t.  & r. 

5 

9 

100 

Check 

6 ' 

50 

As 

with  the  apple,  no 

live  scale  could  be  found. 

Table 

18. — Peaches 

Treated 

in  1920 

Date 

Treatment 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment 

treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

3/20/20 

11/15/20 

March 

27 

1 gal.  lime- 
sulphur  to 
9 gal.  HzO 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

34 

99.66 

44.1 

March 

27 

1 gal.  lime- 
sulphur  to 
9 gal.  H20 

tops 

inst. 

5 

100 

0 

March 

27 

1 lb.  soluble 
sulphur  to 
4 gal.  H2O 

tops 

inst. 

5 

100 

100 

March 

24 

12  lbs.  dry 

tops 

inst. 

5 

100 

100 

lime-surphur  to 

50  gal.  HzO 

March 

25 

14  lbs.  barium 
tetrichloride 

tops 

inst. 

5 

100 

80 

sulphide  to 
5 gal.  H2O 
Check 

10 

86.67 

100 

Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


27 


Each  treatment  killed  100  per  cent  of  the  scale,  except  the  first  which 
killed  99.66  per  cent. 


Table 

19. — Pears 

Treated 

in  1920 

Date 

Treatment 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment 

treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

3/20/20 

11/15/20 

March 

27 

1 gal.  lime- 
sulphur  to 
9 gal.  H2O 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

2 

100 

100 

March 

27 

1 gal.  lime- 
sulphur  to 
9 gal.  HzO 

tops 

inst. 

2 

100 

0 

March 

27 

1 lb.  soluble 
sulphur  to 
9 gal.  H2O 

tops 

inst. 

• 2 

100 

0 

March 

24 

12  lbs.  dry  lime 
sulphur  to 
50  gal.  H2O 

tops 

inst. 

2 

100 

100 

March 

25 

14  lbs.  barium 
tetrichloride 

tops 

inst. 

2 

90 

0 

sulphide  to 
50  gal.  H2O 
Check 

4 

74.68 

0 

All  gave  good  results  except  the  barium  tetrichloride  sulphide  which  killed 
only  90  per  cent  of  the  scale. 


Table  20. — Plums  Treated  in  1917 


Date 

1917 

Insect- 

icide 

Parts 

treated 

Length  of 
treatment, 
min. 

No.  trees 
treated 

Per  cent 
scale  dead 
4/20/17 

April  4 

L.  S.  1-7 

tops 

5 

1 

100 

L.  S.  1-7 

t.  & r. 

5 

1 

100 

Check 

1 

100 

The  scale  on  the  treated  trees  were  all  dead. 

The  lime-sulphur  solution  used  at  both  strengths  caused  considerable 
injury.  There  was  not  a great  deal  of  difference  in  the  strength  of  the  two 
solutions  used  and  some  authorities  claim  that  lime-sulphur  used  at  the 
rate  of  1 gallon  lime-sulphur  to  9 gallons  of  water  will  give  as  good  results 
as  1 gallon  lime-sulphur  to  7 gallons  of  water.  At  the  end  of  the  first  two 
months  and  also  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  a larger  percentage  of  stock 
treated  with  the  weaker,  or  1-9  solution,  was  dead,  which  seems  to  indicate 


28  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


that  nursery  stock  can  stand  a solution  of  lime-sulphur  a little  stronger  than 
1-9  without  any  additional  injury. 

Neither  did  the  lime-sulphur  have  any  effect  upon  the  roots  of  the 
plants  which  were  treated  in  1915,  for  in  only  one  case,  the  1-9  solution 
where  both  roots  and  tops  were  dipped,  was  the  percentage  of  dead  plants 
greater  than  when  tops  only  were  dipped.  Of  these  plants  treated  with  the 
1-7  solution,  the  percentage  of  dead  was  greater  in  the  set  treated  tops  only.. 
In  1920  the  results  were  different  and  the  plants  that  were  dipped  both  tops- 
and  roots  suffered  a much  higher  mortality  than  those  dipped  tops  only. 
All  of  the  plants  treated  with  both  the  lime-sulphur  and  miscible  oil  were 
dipped  instantaneously.  If  the  plants  had  been  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
solution  for  5 or  10  minutes  or  longer  there  would  have  probably  been  a. 
greater  difference  in  the  results  obtained. 

The  1-9  solution  gave  better  results  in  controlling  the  scale  than  the 
1-7  solution,  so  taking  everything  into  consideration  it  seems  that  just  as 
good  results  could  be  obtained  by  using  a 1-9  solution  upon  nursery  stock 
for  the  control  of  scale,  as  a 1-7  solution.  However,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
none  of  the  sulphur  compounds  killed  all  the  scale  and  that  considerable 
injury  may  result  from  their  use  upon  young  plants  it  seems  advisable 
according  to  these  experiments,  to  discourage  the  use  of  them  as  a dip. 


In  a paper  which  appeared  in  Marseilles,  France  in  1763,  petroleum,, 
turpentine  and  other  oils  were  recommended  for  killing  plant  lice.  In  this 
country  turpentine  mixed  with  earth  and  water  was  used  to  destroy  worms 
in  trees  as  early  as  1835  and  in  1865  kerosene  was  recommended  for  destroy- 
ing scale  on  orange  trees  and  was  successfully  applied  to  oleander,  sago- 
palm,  acacia  and  lemon  trees.  The  oil  was  applied  by  means  of  a feather. 
In  June  1866  kerosene  was  recommended,  in  Gardener’s  Monthly,  for  de- 
stroying all  insect  life.  Later  it  was  found  that  kerosene  and  other  oils 
mixed  better  with  water  if  a soap  was  added  and  the  material  could  be 
applied  with  a syringe.  It  is  not  definitely  known  who  made  the  first  kero- 
sene emulsion  but  about  1875  kerosene  mixed  with  soap  was  first  used. 

Use  up  to  present  time. — Since  1875  many  different  mixtures  containing 
miscible  oils  have  been  recommended  for  the  destruction  of  both  chewing 
and  sucking  insects,  particularly  the  latter.  Petroleum  oils  and  soap  form 
the  basis  of  many  patented  miscible  oil  solutions  which  can  be  purchased 
on  the  market  today.  The  miscible  oils  kill  the  insect  by  contact.  The  oil 
has  great  penetrating  ability  and  probably  kills  the  insect  by  preventing  the 
assimilation  of  oxygen  in  the  tissues. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  common  and  most  widely  used 
of  the  miscible  oil  insecticides. 


Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water,  remove  from  fire  and  while  still  hot 
add  the  kerosene.  Th  emixture  is  thoroly  agitated  for  five  or  ten  minutes 
or  until  it  becomes  a creamy  mass.  Crude  oil  can  be  substituted  for  the 


MISCIBLE  OIL  FIRST  USED 


Kerosene 

Soap 

Water 


2 gallons 
% pound 
1 gallon 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


29 


kerosene.  For  a dormant  spray  one  part  of  mixture  is  used  to  five  or  seven 
parts  of  water. 


Distieate  Emuesion 


Distillate  (28°  Baume)  20  gallons 

Whale  oil  soap  20  pounds 

Water  12  gallons 


Dissolve  the  whale  oil  soap  in  the  water,  which  should  be.  heated  to  the 
boiling  point,  add  the  distillate  and  agitate  thoroly  while  the  solution  is 
hot.  For  dormant  use,  add  20  gallons  of  water  to  each  gallon  of  stock 
emulsion. 

Method  of  using. — The  miscible  oils  may  be  used  upon  all  types  of 
sucking  insects  and  also  upon  the  chewing  insects  where  it  is  desirable  to 
kill  them  with  a contact  spray.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by  using  a 
spraying  machine  when  treating  trees  in  the  field,  either  a power  or  hand 
pump,  and  give  the  trees  a thoro  spraying.  When  used  for  scale  insects 
it  must  be  applied  during  the  dormant  season.  It  may  be  used  as  a dor- 
mant spray  upon  nursery  stock,  but  more  generally  when  nursery  stock  is 
treated  for  scale  with  a miscible  oil,  a tank  is  constructed,  the  tank  filled 
with  the  oil  at  the  desired  strength,  and  the  trees  dipped.  It  is  the  general 
belief  that  the  oil  is  not  good  for  the  roots  of  a plant  and  the  tops  only 
are  dipped. 

Chemical  composition  of  miscible  oil. — The  alkali  in  the  soap  or  other 
emulsifier  reacts  upon  the  oil  in  such  a way  as  to  cause  it  to  break  up  and 
become  miscible  in  water.  The  commercial  preparations  are  presumably 
composed  of  different  types  of  oils  treated  in  different  ways  and  are  pro- 
tected by  United  States  patents. 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  MISCIBLE  OIL 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  miscible  oils  are  used  to  some  extent  in  con- 
trolling San  Jose  scale  upon  fruit  trees  and,  that  in  some  states  nursery- 
men are  allowed  to  use  it  instead  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  upon  nursery 
stock,  an  effort  was  made  to  determine  its  efficiency  for  controlling  the 
scale,  Some  of  the  nurserymen  who  use  a miscible  oil  to  dip  their  stock 
say  that  it  controls  the  scale  just  as  well,  if  not  better,  than  hydrocyanic- 
acid  gas;  that  it  is  not  so  costly,  and  that  there  is  less  danger  of  injury 
to  the  tree.  Also,  like  lime-sulphur,  it  is  non-poisonous. 

Procedure. — The  larger  nurserymen  who  make  a practice  of  dipping 
their  stock,  usually  construct  a large  cistern-shaped  vat  of  concrete  or  use 
a large  tank  which  they  fill  with  the  solution  and  in  which  very  large  trees 
can  be  dipped.  In  this  work  the  same  trough  was  used  as  with  the  lime- 
sulphur  and  in  every  detail  the  methods  of  procedure  were  the  same  with 
the  exception  of  the  solution.  With  the  first  two  sets  of  trees  treated, 
1 gallon  of  oil  was  used  to  15  gallons  of  water;  with  the  third  and  fourth 
sets,  1 gallon  of  oil  to  13  gallons  of  water  was  used. 

Effect  of  miscible  oil  upon  San  Jose  scale  on  apple. — The  following 


30  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


table  shows  the  results  obtained  by  using  miscible  oil  upon  San  Jose  scale 
on  apple  trees,  at  the  strength  of  1 gallon  to  15  gallons  of  water,  and  1 
gallon  to  13  gallons  of  water. 


Table  21. 

— Apples 

Treated 

in  1916 

Date 

Inspect- 

Parts  Length 

No. 

Per 

Per  cent 

icide 

treated 

of 

trees 

cent 

trees  dead 

treat- 

treat- 

scale 

ment 

ed 

dead 

1916 

min. 

5/14-25/16  5/26/16  4/4/1 7 

March  21 

Mis.  Oil  1-15 

top 

inst. 

10 

100 

10  50 

Mis.  Oil  1-15 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

10 

100 

0 40 

Mis.  Oil  1-13 

top 

inst. 

10 

100 

10  50 

Mis.  Oil  1-13 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

10 

100 

20  50 

Check 

20 

38.9 

0 60 

Each 

tree  was  very  carefully  examined 

and  no 

live  scale 

whatever 

could  be  found,  and  the  control  seemed  to  be  complete. 

Table  22. 

— Apples 

Treated- 

in  1917 

Date 

Insect- 

Parts 

Length  of  No.  trees 

Per  cent 

icide 

treated  treatment, 

treated 

scale  dead 

1917 

min. 

4/20/17 

April  9 

Mis.  Oil  1-12 

top 

5 

5 

100 

Mis.  Oil  1-12 

t.  & r. 

5 

5 

100 

Check 

4 

75 

No  live  scale  could  be  found  when  examined. 

Table  23. — Apples  Treated 

in  1920 

Date 

Insecticide 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment 

treated  dead 

dead 

1920 

3/20/20 

11/15/20 

March  26 

1 gal.  Mis.  Oil 
to  15  gal.  H20 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

34 

100 

88.2 

March  26 

1 gal.  Mis.  Oil 
to  15  gal.  H2O 

tops 

inst. 

34 

100 

73.5 

March  27 

V2  pt.  Lemon 
Oil,  6%  gal. 
H2O  and  V2  lb. 

tops 

inst. 

34 

84.20 

76.4 

soap 

Check 

68 

76 

94.2 

Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


3T 


The  lemon  oil  gave  very  poor  results. 


Table  24. — Pears  Treated 

in  1920 

Date 

Insecticide 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment 

treated 

dead 

dead 

3/20/20 

11/15/20" 

March 

26 

1 gal.  Mis.  Oil 
to  15  gal.  H20 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

2 

100 

100 

March 

26 

1 gal.  Mis.  Oil 
to  15  gal.  H20 

tops 

inst. 

2 

100 

100 

March 

27 

V2  pt.  Lemon 
Oil,  6V2  gal. 
H20  and  y2  lb. 

tops 

inst. 

2 

100 

50 

soap 

Check 

4 

74.68 

0 

All  treatments  gave  good  results. 


Table  25. — Peaches  Treated  in  1916 


Date 

1916 

Insect- 

icide 

Parts 

treated 

Length 

of 

treat- 

ment 

min. 

No. 

trees 

treat- 

ed 

Per 

cent 

scale 

dead 

5/14-25/16 

Per  cent 
trees  dead 

5/26/16  4/4/17 

March  21 

Mis.  Oil  1-15 

top 

inst. 

4 

100 

0 

0 

Mis.  Oil  1-15 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

4 

100 

37.5 

37.5 

Mis.  Oil  1-12 

top 

inst. 

4 

99.3 

25 

25 

Mis.  Oil  1-12 

t.  & r. 

inst. 

4 

100 

25 

62.5 

Check 

8 

100 

25 

62.5 

All  of  the  above  treatments  proved  effective  with  the  exception  of  one, 
the  1-12,  tops  only,  and  the  control  in  this  case  was  99.3  per  cent.  How- 
ever, this  is  enough  to  reinfest  the  tree. 


Table  26. — Peaches  Treated  in  1917 


Date 

1917 

Insect- 

icide 

Parts 

treated 

Length  of 
treatment, 
min. 

No.  trees 
treated 

Per  cent 
scale  dead 
4/20/17 

April  9 

Mis.  Oil  1-12 

top 

5 

9 

100 

Mis.  Oil  1-12 

t.  & r. 

5 

9 

100 

Check 

6 

60 

32  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


No  live  scale  could  be  found. 


Table  27.- 

—Peaches 

Treated 

in  1920 

Date 

Insecticide 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment, 

treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

min. 

3/20/20 

11/15/20 

March  26 

1 gal.  Mis.  Oil 
to  15  gal.  HzO 

t.  & r. 

5 

5 

100 

60 

March  26 

1 gal.  Mis.  Oil 
to  15  gal.  H20 

tops 

5 

5 

100 

40 

March  27 

y2  pt.  Lemon 
Oil,  6J4  gal. 
H20  and  y2  lb. 

tops 

5 

5 

60 

80 

soap 

Check 

. 

10 

85.67 

100 

The  foregoing  tables  show  that  miscible  oil  does  not  injure  nursery- 
stock  to  any  great  extent;  however,  as  compared  with  the  check,  some  in- 
jury results  from  its  use.  Probably  some  time  is  required  before  the  injury 
shows  up  to  any  great  extent.  At  the  end  of  the  first  two  months  the  per 
cent  of  dead  plants  was  not  so  great  where  the  tops  only  were  treated,  as 
in>  the  case  of  the  checks.  At  the  end  of  a year,  however,  there  was  about 
three  times  as  many  of  the  plants,  which  were  treated  tops  only,  dead 
as  in  the  case  of  the  check.  Those  plants  which  were  dipped  both  tops  and 
roots  showed  a higher  percentage  of  death  than  those  dipped  tops  only.  So 
it  seems  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  dip  the  roots  of  plants  in  miscible  oil. 

In  comparing  the  two  strengths  of  miscible  oil  used,  the  1 gallon  to  12 
gallons  of  water,  caused  a much  greater  percentage  of  injury  than  the 
weaker  strength  of  1 gallon  of  the  oil  to  15  gallons  of  water. 

As  to  the  control  of  San  Jose  scale,  the  miscible  oil  gave  excellent 
results.  Both  strengths  controlled  the  scale  upon  the  apples.  Upon  the 
peach  the  results  were  as  good  with  the  exception  of  those  treated,  tops 
only,  with  the  1-12  strength  and  in  this  case  99.3  per  cent  of  the  scale  was 
killed. 

Taken  as  a whole,  the  miscible  oil  injured  the  plants  less  and  controlled 
the  San  Jose  scale  better  than  any  of  the  other  materials  used. 

As  the  tables  show  the  lemon  oil  which  was  used  in  1920  gave  very 
poor  results.  Lemon  oil  is  used  to  some  extent  by  florists  to  spray  green 
house  plants  which  are  infested  with  scale  insects,  however  it  seems  to  be  of 
little  value  in  controlling  San  Jose  scale. 

NICOTINE  SULPHATE  AS  A SPRAY 

In  addition  to  all  of  the  other  materials  used  in  1920  nicotine  sulphate, 
a tobacco  extract,  was  tried.  It  is  a sulphate  of  nicotine  and  therefore  an 
acid  material.  It  contains  40  per  cent  nioctine  and  is  used  as  a contact 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


35 


spray  for  soft  bodied  insects  like  the  plant  lice.  It  is  usually  used  at  the 
rate  of  one  gallon  of  nicotine  sulphate  to  about  800  gallons  of  water.  In 
using  it  as  a dip  for  San  Jose  scale  on  dormant  trees  it  was  used  at  the  rate 
of  one  gallon  of  nicotine  sulphate  to  100  gallons  of  water.  The  following 
tables  show  the  results  obtained. 


Table  28. 

— Apples 

Treated 

in  1920 

Date 

Treatment 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment 

treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

min. 

3/20/20 

11/15/20 

March  27 

1 gal.  Nicotine 
sulphate  to 

tops 

inst. 

34 

64.74 

91.1 

Check 

68 

76 

94.2 

Table  29.- 

—Peaches 

Treated 

in  1920 

Date  Treatment 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment 

treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

min. 

3/20/20 

11/15/20 

March  27  1 gal.  Nicotine 

tops 

inst. 

5 

100 

80 

sulphate  to  100 

gal.  HUO 

Check 

10 

85.67 

100 

Table  30. 

— Pears 

Treated 

in  1920 

Date  Treatment 

Parts 

Length 

No. 

Per 

Per 

treated 

of 

of 

cent 

cent 

treat- 

trees 

scale 

trees 

ment 

treated 

dead 

dead 

1920 

min. 

3/20/20 

11/15/20 

March  27  1 gal.  Nicotine 

tops 

inst. 

2 

100 

100 

sulphate  to  100 
gal.  HzO 
Check 

4 

74.68 

0 

Nicotine  sulphate  seemed  to  have  killed  all  the  scale  on  the  peach 
and  pear  but  on  the  apples  it  gave  very  poor  results.  It  also  caused  con- 
siderable injury  to  the  plants  treated.  Evidently  it  should  not  be  used 
as  a dip  in  controlling  San  Jose  scale  on  nursery  stock. 


34  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 

SUMMARY 

1.  Hydrocyanic-acid  gas  did  not  in  every  case  completely  control  the 
San  Jose  scale.  However,  the  gas  used  at  a strength  of  1-1-3  gave  better 
results  than  the  weaker  strength  of  Vz-Vz-^Vz.  The  1-1-3  strength  gave  as 
good  results  as  the  2-2-6  strength.  Sodium  cyanide  used  at  the  strength  of 
d-1^-3  killed  100  per  cent  of  the  scale. 

2.  Hydrocyanic-acid  gas  was  more  effective  when  used  upon  dry 
plants  than  upon  wet.  A larger  percentage  of  the  scale  was  killed. 

3.  All  strengths  of  the  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  caused  more  or  less 
Injury  to  the  plants.  The  stronger  it  was  used,  the  more  injury  it  caused. 

4.  The  1-1-3  formula  should  always  be  used  in  fumigating  nursery 
■stock,  and  the  stock  should  be  dry.  There  may  be  greater  danger  of  in- 
jury to  the  plants,  but  the  scale  will  be  more  completely  controlled,  and 
this  is  the  most  important  factor. 

5.  Carbon  bisulphide  did  not  control  the  scale  and  it  caused  a verjr 
Tiigh  percentage  of  injury.  Its  use  as  a fumigating  material  for  the  control 
of  San  Jose  scale  on  nursery  stock  should 'be  discouraged. 

6.  Lime-sulphur  used  at  1-9  and  1-7  strengths  gave  fairly  good  results 
in  controlling  the  scale.  The  1-9  solution  gave  perfect  results  on  pears  and 
plums. 


7.  The  sulphur  dips  injured  the  plants  to  some  extent.  The  plants 
dipped  both  tops  and  roots  showed  more  injury  than  those  dipped  tops 
only. 

8.  The  miscible  oil  gave  the  best  results,  100  per  cent  of  the  scale 
being  controlled  in  every  case  but  one  and  in  this  case  the  control  exceeded 
99  per  cent. 

9.  Miscible  oil  caused  some  injury  to  the  plants.  Those  dipped  tops 
and  roots  were  injured  most.  When  treating  nursery  stock  with  miscible 
oil  the  roots  should  not  be  dipped. 

10.  Lemon  oil  or  nicotine  sulphate  should  not  be  used  as  dips  for  con- 
trolling scale  on  nursery  stock. 

11.  None  of  the  materials  used  completely  controlled  the  San  Jose 
scale. 

12.  All  scale-infested  nursery  stock  should  be  burned  or  destroyed  in 
some  other  way. 

13.  Nursery  stock  which  has  been  subjected  to  infestation,  but  is  not 
infested  should  be  treated  before  being  placed  on  the  market. 

14.  The  best  results  should  be  expected  by  treating  the  stock  with* 
hydrocyanic-acid  gas  1-1-3,  or  with  miscible  oil  at  the  strength  of  1-12  or 
1-15,  tops  only. 


Dipping  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock 


35 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(1)  Comstock,  J.  H. 

1916.  Report  on  Scale  Insects.  Cornell  Bui.  No.  372. 

(2)  Cordey,  A.  B. 

1910.  Insecticides  and  Fungicides.  Oregon  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  108. 

(3)  Dean,  George  A. 

Mill  and  Stored  Grain  Insects.  Kan.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  189. 

(4)  Faurot,  F.  W. 

1906.  Preliminary  Experiments  in  Dipping  Nursery  Stock.  Mo.  Fruit 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  14. 

(5)  Feet,  E.  P. 

Petroleum  and  Petroleum  Products  as  Insecticides.  N.  Y.  State  Ed. 
Dept.,  Albany. 

(6)  Garman,  H. 

Nursery  Inspection  and  San  Jose  Scale.  Kentucky  Sta.  Bui.  110. 

(7)  

Diseases  of  Nursery  Stock.  Ky.  Sta.  Bui.  93. 

(8)  Girauet,  A.  A. 

1912  Insects  Injurious  to  Stored  Grains  and  Grain  Products.  111.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  156. 

(9)  Haseman,  L. 

1915.  Control  of  an  Jose  Scale  in  Missouri.  Mo.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta 
Bui.  132. 

(10)  Hinds,  W.  E. 

Carbon  Bisulphide  as  an  Insecticide.  Farmer’s  Bui.  145. 

(11)  Howard,  L.  O. 

Hydrocyanic-acid  Gas  Against  Household  Insects.  U.  S.  D.  A.  Cir.  46, 
2d.  ser. 

(12)  Johnson,  W.  G. 

1902  Fumigation  Methods. 

(13)  Lodeman,  E.  G. 

Spraying  of  Plants.  Macmillan  Company. 

(14)  Lowe,  V.  H. 

Inspection  and  Treatment  of  Infested  Nursery  Stock.  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  136. 

(15)  Lowe,  V.  H.  and  Parrott,  P.  J. 

1901.  San  Jose  Scale  Investigations  111.  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  202. 

(16)  Marlatt,  C.  L. 

1906.  The  San  Jose  or  Chinese  Scale.  B.  O.  E.  Bui.  62. 

(17)  Morse,  F.  W. 

1887.  The  Use  of  Gases  Against  Scale  Insects.  Cal.  Exp.  ta.  Bui.  71. 


36  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177 


(18)  McDonnell,  C.  D. 

111.  Chemistry  of  Fumigating  With  Hydrocyanic-acid  Gas.  U.  S.  D.  A. 
B.  O.  E.  Bui.  90. 

(19)  Parrott,  P.  J.,  Hodgkiss,  H.  E.,  and  Schoene,  W.  J. 

1908.  Dipping  of  Nursery  Stock  in  Lime-Sulphur  Wash.  N.  Y.  Exp. 

Sta.  Bui.  302. 

(20)  Pearis,  L.  M.,  and  Merrill,  J.  H. 

1916.  San  Jose  Scale.  Kan.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  214. 

(21)  Schoene,  W.  J. 

1913.  The  Influence  of  Temperature  and  Moisture  in  Fumigating.  N. 

Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  30. 

(22)  

1914.  Analysis  of  Materials  as  insecticides  and  Fungicides.  N.  Y.  Exp. 

Sta.  Bui.  384. 

(23)  Shaeerm,  Geo.  D. 

1915.  How  Contact  Insectides  Kill.  Mich.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui. 

21. 

(24)  Sirrine,  F.  A. 

1901.  Treatment  of  San  Jose  Scale  in  Orchards.  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  209. 

(25)  

1895.  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Ann.  Rpt. 

(26)  Slingerland  and  Crosby 

Manual  of  Fruit  Insects. 

(27)  Steadman,  J.  N. 

1898.  San  Jose  Scale  in  Missouri.  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  3. 

(28)  

1898.  San  Jose  scale  in  Missouri.  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  41. 

(29)  Woodsworth,  C.  W. 

School  of  Fumigating.  Univ.  of  Calif.,  Pomona,  Calif. 

(30)  

1909.  Fumigating  the  Apple  for  San  Jose  scale.  U.  S.  Ent.  Bui.  84. 

(31)  1910.  U.  S.  Census  Report. 

(32)  Missouri  Nursery  Inspection  Law.  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  63. 

(33)  Close,  C.  V. 

1903-1906.  Del.  Sta.  Ann.  Rpts.  15:137;  16,  17,  and  18:48. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  178 


TESTING  FERTILIZERS  FOR 
MISSOURI  FARMERS:  1920 


Schweitzer  Hall,  Chemistry  Building 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
JANUARY,  1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL, 

the:  curators  of  the;  university  of  Missouri 

EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 

ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 
i STATION  STAFF 

January,  1921 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 
C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.2 

R.  M.  Smith,  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedmann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  Sieveking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  B.  Culbertson,  Jr.,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

G.  W.  York,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  F.  Ahmann,  A.  B. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B.  S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Bernard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  Edinger,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Samuel  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

P.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

S.  R.  McLanE,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FIELD  CROPS 
VV.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  BransTETTEr,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  GromEr,  A.  M. 

P.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

Ben  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B.  S. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agi 
Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 

R.  B.  Price,  M.  S..  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S..  Secretary 

S.  B.  Shirkey,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Director 
A.  A.  Jeffrey,  A.  B.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 

Miss  Bertha  C.  Hite,1  Seed  Testing 
Laboratory 


'In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
2Qn  leave  of  absence. 


Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers: 

1920 

Report  of  the  Director 

F.  B.  Mumford 
Director  of  the  Experiment  Station 

The  sale  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  Missouri  has  increased  materially 
during  the  past  few  years.  The  quality  of  fertilizers  offered  for  sale  has 
also  improved.  The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  under  its  direc- 
tion not  only  all  soil  investigations  which  have  for  their  purpose  a study 
of  the  best  systems  of  soil  management  in  the  state,  but  also  the  inspection 
of  commercial  fertilizers.  On  the  one  hand  the  investigations  of  the  Ex- 
periment Station  determine  the  most  profitable  fertilizers  for  Missouri  soils 
and,  on  the  other  hand  it  has,  through  its  relation  to  the  fertilizer  inspec- 
tion service,  the  opportunity  of  encouraging  the  use  of  fertilizers  adapted  to 
Missouri  soils  and  discouraging  the  sale  of  fertilizers  which  are  not  profit- 
able on  the  soils  of  this  state.  By  reason  of  this  relation,  the  Station  has 
brought  about  a much  more  intelligent  use  of  fertilizers  and  has  practically 
eliminated  commercial  fertilizers  of  doubtful  value  from  the  fertilizer  com- 
merce of  Missouri. 

By  reason  of  the  success  of  the  Experiment  Station  in  properly  cor- 
relating the  investigational  and  educational  activities  of  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  and  the  protection  of  farmers  in  the  use  of  fertilizers 
through  the  inspection  service,  the  manufacturers  of  fertilizers  now  con- 
sult the  Experiment  Station  authorities  before  placing  their  brands  of  fer- 
tilizer upon  the  market.  They  have  come'  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  the 
ultimate  success  of  their  business  depends  upon  pushing  the  sale  of  brands 
of  fertilizer  which  are  known  to  produce  profitable  crops  on  the  soils  of 
Missouri. 

The  actual  inspection  of  commercial  fertilizers  involves  the  following 
activities : 

(1)  Manufacturers  are  required  to  register  the  brands  of  fer- 
tilizers offered  for  sale  in  Missouri. 

(2)  In  registering  fertilizers,  the  manufacturer  is  required  to 
guarantee  a definite  chemical  composition  in  terms  indicating  its 
value  as  aj  fertilizer. 

(3)  The  manufacturer  is  required  to  print  on  every  package  of 
fertilizer  in  legible  English  the  name  of  the  brand  of  fertilizer  and 
the  guaranteed  chemical  composition  of  its  contents. 

(4)  Manufacturers  and  dealers  are  required  to  attach  to  every 
package  of  fertilizer,  a registration  tag  which  certifies  to  the  fact 
that  such  brands  have  been  registered  for  sale  in  Missouri. 

(5)  The  inspection  work  of  the  Experiment  Station  involves  the 
collection  of  samples  from  warehouses,  freight  cars,  dealers  and 
farmers’  wagon  in  the  field  or  wherever  found. 

(6) The  samples  collected  are  sent  immediately  to  the  chemical 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


laboratory  of  the  Experiment  Station  where  they  are  analyzed  with 
a view  to  determining  whether  or  not  the  guarantee  of  the  manu- 
facturer is  truthful. 

(7)  The  results  of  these  analyses  are  printed  promptly  and  dis- 
tributed widely  to  dealers  and  farmers.  Publicity  is  given  in  these 
publications  to  the  failure  of  manufacturers  or  dealers  to  comply  with 
the  provisions  of  the  law. 

The  major  work  in  connection  with  the  proper  registration  and  inspec- 
tion of  commercial  fertilizers  as  conducted  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  is  in  the  accurate  sampling  of  brands  of  fertilizers  as  they  are 
offered  for  sale  in  the  state  and  the  analysis  of  these  fertilizers  in  the  chem- 
ical laboratory  of  the  Experiment  Station.  In  some  seasons  the  number 
of  individual  analysis  which  must  be  made  is  more  than  one  thousand. 
Each  sample  is  analyzed  in  duplicate  and  all  results  are  carefully  checked 
in  order  that  the  chemist  may  be  absolutely  certain  that  the  composition 
of  the  fertilizer  under  investigation  is  determined  with  no  possibility  of 
error  by  his  staff  of  assistants.  At  the  present  time  we  have  employed  in 
the  Department  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  eleven  chemists  whose  chief 
work  is  in  connection  with  the  analyses  of  commercial  fertilizer  samples. 

The  facts  determined  by  our  inspectors  and  chemists  in  the  fertilizer 
inspection  work  are  exceedingly  valuable  in  suggesting  to  the  soil  special- 
ists in  the  Experiment  Station  the  problems  which  need  to  be  investigated 
in  order  that  the  farmer  may  be  protected  in  his  use  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers. The  combination  of  investigation  and  inspection  of  fertilizers  and 
soils  has  been  most  successful  and  satisfactory.  The  important  results 
secured  in  connection  with  the  soil  investigations  of  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tion could  not  have  been  secured  if  the  fertilizer  inspection  had  been  sep- 
arated from  the  investigational  work  of  the  Experiment  Station. 

The  fact  that  the  inspection  service  has  been  directly  connected  with 
the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  made  it  possible  for  us  to  place 
promptly  in  the  hands  of  our  County  Agents  the  facts  concerning  fertilizers 
offered  for  sale  in  the  state  and  thus  we  have  been  able  to  prevent  fraud 
on  the  part  of  fertilizer  manufacturers  and  to  indicate  the  type  of  fertilizer 
which  is  certain  to  produce  proltable  results  on  Missouri  soils. 

It  may  be  said  in  general  of  the  results  of  the  fertilizer  inspection  as 
conducted  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  that  the  whole  fertilizer 
business  has  been  placed  upon  a much  more  satisfactory  basis,  the  farmers 
have  come  to  know  better  what  kind  of  fertilizer  to  apply,  thus  creating 
more  and  more  a demand  for  honest  goods,  and  have  practically  driven  out 
of  the  market  fraudulent  or  worthless  fertilizer  materials. 


Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


How  to  Use  Commercial  Fertilizers 

M.  F.  Miller 
Professor  of  Soils 

The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  Missouri  increased  greatly  during 
the  war.  This  was  due  to  the  high  prices  of  farm  crops  and  to  the  gen- 
eral feeling  among  farmers  that  they  should  produce  all  they  could  in  the 
emergency.  There  is  little  doubt  that  this  will  have  a pronounced  effect 
upon  their  future  use  since  many  farmers,  who  had  not  used  them  before, 
found  them  to  bring  marked  returns  and  they  are  anxious  to  continue  using 
them.  There  is  still  some  skepticism  among  farmers  regarding  their  use, 
however,  many  men  believing  that  their  constant  application  will  injure  the 
soil.  No  question  is  more  commonly  asked  than  that  having  to  do  with 
this  possible  injury.  The  facts  regarding  this  matter  seem  to  be  thgse. 

DO  FERTILIZERS  INJURE  THE  SOIL? 

Fertilizers  applied  in  comparatively  small  quantities  to  a crop  like 
wheat,  which  is  grown  year  after  year  without  change,  give  a measurably 
better  wheat  yield  but  have  no  influence  in  building  up  the  soil.  As  a mat- 
ter of  fact,  if  such  a practice  is  continued  for  four  or  five  years  and  then 
wheat  is  planted  without  fertilizer,  the  yield  will  usually  be  found  to  be 
smaller  than  at  the  beginning.  The  fertilizer  has  added  less  to  the  soil 
than  the  crops  have  taken  out,  but  its  use  has  made  it  profitable  to  grow 
wheat  somewhat  longer  than  if  it  had  not  been  used.  Such  an  effect  has 
often  been  observed  and  farmers  have  concluded  that  the  fertilizer  has  in- 
jured the  soil,  when  as  a matter  of  fact,  it  was  the  exhaustive  cropping  of 
the  land  rather  than  the  effect  of  the  fertilizer  that  was  responsible  for  the 
injury.  Where  fertilizers  are  used  in  small  or  in  large  quantities  in  connec- 
tion with  a satisfactory  cropping  system  and,  especially  where  farm  manure 
is  carefully  returned  to  the  land,  no  such  effect  will  be  observed. 

THE  USE  OF  HIGH  GRADE  FERTILIZERS 

It  is  better  to  use  high  grade  rather  than  low  grade  fertilizers.  Low 
grade  fertilizers,  either  of  necessity,  must  contain  filler  or  they  are  made 
of  low  grade  materials.  High  grade  fertilizers  contain  little  or  no  filler  and 
they  are  the  most  economical  in  the  long  run.  While  the  ton  cost  is  higher, 
the  cost  per  unit  of  plant  food  is  lower.  A less  amount  may  be  used  per 
acre,  and  the  crop  increase  is  secured  at  less  cost.  In  general  high  grade 
fertilizers  include  those  containing  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  units  of  plant 
food  although  any  fertilizer  containing  as  much  as  fourteen  units  would  be 
considered  satisfactory.  (A  unit  is  twenty  pounds  per  ton,  or  one  per  cent. 
A 2-12-2  fertilizer  therefore,  contains  16  per  cent  of  plant  food  and  is 
easily  in  the  high  grade  class  while  a 2-8-2  contains  but  twelve  units  and 
would  not  be  considered  a high  grade  material. 

The  National  Fertilizer  Association,  through  its  soil  Improvement  Com- 
mittee, is  supporting  the  recommendations  of  the  experiment  stations  for 
the  use  of  high  grade  materials  only.  It  is  however,  important  to  con- 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


vince  the  farmers  regarding  the  benefits  to  be  derived.  The  purchaser  of  a 
fertilizer,  the  same  as  the  purchaser  of  a ton  of  coal,  thinks  of  the  ton  price 
and  often  forgets  to  give  sufficient  attention  to  quality.  So  long  as  the 
farmers  demand  those  fertilizers  of  lowest  ton  price  regardless  of  their 
quality,  just  so  long  will  the  manufacturers  make  them.  It  is  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  farmer  and  the  fertilizer  manufacturer  alike  to  consider 
only  the  better  materials.  The  farmer  should  study  fertilizer  compositions, 
he  should  learn  just  what  fertilizers  contain  and  he  should  inform  himself 
in  so  far  as  possible  regarding  those  fertilizers  which  will  give  the  best 
return  on  his  land.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  higher  grade  materials  will 
bring  the  best  return  in  the  long  run  and  the  farmer  should  insist  on  having 
them. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  WEATHER  ON  THE  RETURNS  FROM 

FERTILIZER 

Missouri  will  probably  never  use  fertilizers  in  such  quantities  as  the 
states  further  east  and  south.  This  is  because  of  a less  favorable  distribu- 
tion of  rainfall  and  because  farm  crop  prices  in  this  region  of  large  pro- 
duction will  doubtless  remain  somewhat  lower  than  in  the  other  regions 
mentioned.  Spring  planted  crops  are  particularly  influenced  by  the  dry 
periods  which  occur  so  frequently  during  midsummer  since  these  greatly 
interfere  with  the  returns  from  fertilizers.  For  fertilizers  to  bring  best 
returns  on  such  crops,  the  season  must  be  one  of  abundant  rainfall.  Fer- 
tilizers cannot  take  the  place  of  moisture.  The  difficulty  however,  is  not 
one  of  total  rainfall,  since  that  is  usually  sufficient;  it  is  a matter  of  a 
proper  distribution  of  this  rainfall  during  the  growing  season.  For  fall 
sown  crops,  such  as  wheat,  injury  from  drought  is  much  less.  Wheat  usual- 
ly matures  before  the  dry  weather  of  summer  comes  on.  It  is,  therefore, 
on  wheat  that  the  most  consistent  increases  in  yield  are  secured  and  this 
fact,  together  with  the  additional  fact  that  wheat  commands  a comparative- 
ly high  price  per  bushel,  results  in  more  than  eighty  per  cent  of  the  fer- 
tilizer used  in  Missouri  being  applied  to  this  crop. 

THE  RESULTS  OF  MISSOURI  EXPERIMENTS 

The  University  of  Missouri  Experiment  Station  has  been  conducting 
experiments  with  the  use  of  fertilizing  materials  for  a period  of  fourteen 
years  on  a number  of  soil  experiment  fields  representing  the  more  im- 
portant soils  of  the  state.  The  results  secured  have  varied  from  field  to 
field,  but  in  general,  the  treatment  that  has  brought  largest  net  returns  has 
been  that  of  phosphates,  applied  in  the  form  of  highly  steamed  bone  meal 
or  acid  phosphate.  Potash  has  brought  good  returns  on  some  of  the  soils 
of  Southern  Missouri  and  fair  returns'  on  some  of  the  soils  north  of  the 
River.  Fertilizers  containing  large  quantities  of  nitrogen  have  not  been 
used,  since  barnyard  manure  and  legume  crops  have  been  depended  upon 
quite  largely  for  supplying  this  element.  Where  nitrogen  has  been  used  in 
small  to  medium  amounts  on  poor  lands,  however,  it  seems  to  have  brought 
fair  returns,  particularly  on  wheat.  The  thing  that  stands  out  in  these 
results,  is  the  return  from  the  highly  steamed  bone  meal  and  acid  phosphate. 


Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


/ 


As  an  average  of  all  data,  highly  steamed  bone  meal  and  acid  phosphate 
applied  at  the  rate  of  300  to  400  pounds  per  acre,  divided  between  corn  and 
wheat  in  a rotation  of  corn,  oats,,  wheat  and  clover,  has  brought  a net  return 
of  approximately  $10.00  at  prewar  prices  and  approximately  double  this  net 
return  at  war  prices  of  fertilizers  and  crops.  Consequently  the  Experiment 
Station  has  been  recommending  these  materials  where  they  are  obtainable 
at  a reasonable  price.  During  recent  years  bone  meal  has  been  compara- 
tively high  and  scarce,  but  this  condition  has  improved  considerably 
during  recent  months.  There  is  no  doubt  that  fertilizers  carrying 
some  potash  (2  to  4 per  cent)  at  anything  like  normal  prices,  will 
bring  fair  to  good  profits  on  certain  soils,  particularly  some  of  the  Ozark 
lands,  the  prairies  of  Southwestern  Missouri,  and  even  the  poorer  lands 
of  Northern  Missouri.  The  same  may  be  said  of  nitrogen  (2  to  3 per  cent) 
in  a fertilizer  applied  to  wheat  on  these  same  lands,  but  nitrogen  cannot  be 
maintained  in  a soil  by  the  use  of  fertilizers,  so  that  dependence  must  cer- 
tainly be  placed  in  a cropping  system  containing  legumes  and  the  use  of 
barnyard  manure  or  green  manures.  The  recommendations  which  follow 
regarding  the  use  of  fertilizers  on  specific  crops  are  based  on  the  results 
and  principles  above  given. 

FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN 

Corn  is  the  crop  which  can  make  best  use  of  barnyard  manure.  It  is  a 
heavy  feeder  and  requires  much  more  plant  food  than  can  economically  be 
applied  in  commercial  fertilizers.  Barnyard  manure,  however,  is  low  in 
phosphates  in  comparison  with  the  other  , elements  and,  at  the  same  time 
the  average  Missouri  soil  is  deficient  in  this  form  of  plant  food.  Consequent- 
ly one  of  the  very  best  ways  of  fertilizing  corn,  where  a good  quantity  of 
barnyard  manure  is  available,  is  to  apply  thirty  to  forty  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  to  each  load  of  manure  before  it  is  scattered  on  the  corn  land. 
This  applies  to  practically  all  soils  in  Missouri  except  the  richer  bottom 
lands  and  uplands..  Where  barnyard  manure  is  not  available  in  quantity, 
the  application  of  about  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  per  acre,  applied 
with  a fertilizer  drill  in  advance  of  the  corn  planter,  will  usually  be  found 
to  be  the  next  best  system  of  fertilization  for  lands  of  medium  to  low  fer- 
tility. On  very  thin  lands,  a mixed  fertilizer  containing  2 or  3 per  cent 
nitrogen,  around  12  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid  and  2 or  3 per  cent 
potash  applied  at  similar  rates  with  a fertilizer  drill,  will  give  good  returns 
on  seasons  when  a midsummer  drought  does  not  interfere..  The  applica- 
tion of  fertilizer  in  the  hill  or  drill,  with  a fertilizer  planter,  is  the  most 
economical  plan  from  the  standpoint  of  first  cost.  The  best  fertilizer  to 
use  in  this  case  seems  to  be  one  of  the  mixed  fertilizers  such  as  a 2-10-2, 
a 2-12-2  or  a 2-12-0  at  the  rate  of  75  to  100  pounds  per  acre.  Where  the 
season  is  one  of  abundant  rainfall,  such  an  application,  on  the  average  to 
poor  lands  of  Missouri,  or  even  on  lands  considerably  above  the  average  in 
fertility,  will  give  good  results,  but  such  a practice  continued  year  after 
year  is  hard  on  the  land  and  in  seasons  of  deficient  rainfall,  the  corn  often 
“fires”  considerably  more  than  where  no  fertilizer  is  applied.  In  general, 
however,  the  practice  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  the  other  methods  mentioned. 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


It  should  be  remembered  that  any  system  of  fertilizing  corn,  except  where 
considerable  amounts  of  phosphate  are  applied,  has  little  or  no  influence 
in  'maintaining  fertility.  In  any  case  fertilizers  should  be  used  as  an  ad- 
junct to  the  best  systems  of  cropping,  legume  growing  and  manuring  that 
the  farmer  can  practice. 

FERTILIZERS  FOR  WHEAT 

Since  wheat  is  the  crop  on  which  most  consistent  results  with  fertilizers 
have  been  secured,  rather  specific  recommendations  can  be  made  regarding 
its  fertilization.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  these  may  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  relative  prices  of  wheat  and  fertilizer.  Again  the  influence 
of  the  fertilizer  on  clover  or  grass,  following  the  wheat,  is  usually  of  im- 
portance. In  general,  the  following  recommendations  will  hold. 

For  the  uplands  of  Northern  and  West  Central  Missouri: 

1.  Medium  to  good  soils: 

a.  Acid  phosphate  (16  per  cent.)  or  steamed  bone  meal. 

b.  Mixture,  half  acid  phosphate  and  half  bone  meal. 

2.  Poor  soils: 

a.  2-12-0  (2  per  cent  nitrogen  and  12  per  cent  available  phosphoric 
acid,  no  potash). 

b.  2-12-2  (On  the  white  oak  uplands  and  poorer  prairies.) 

c.  Bone  meal — Where  clover  follows  wheat. 

For  uplands  of  Southern  Missouri: 

1.  Medium  to  good  soils: 

a.  0-12  or  14-2,  (a  fertilizer  containing  12  per  cent  to  14  per  cent 
available  phosphoric  acid  and  2 per  cent  potash). 

b.  2-12-2  (On  badly  worn  unmanured  lands). 

c.  Acid  phosphate  (on  lands  manured  and  well  cared  for). 

d.  Steamed  bone  meal. 

2.  Poor  soils: 

a.  2-12-2 

b.  Bone  meal — Where  clover  follows  wheat. 

For  lowlands  of  Southeastern  Missouri: 

1.  Acid  phosphate  usually  is  best  where  fertilizers  are  used  at  all. 

The  above  recommendations  are  as  accurate  as  can  be  made  in  a gen- 
eral statement  and  the  fertilizers  recommended  are  those  which  seem  best 
at  this  time.  Where  such  brands  are  not  available,  the  nearest  approach  to 
them  should  be  used.  It  should  be  understood  that  acid  phosphate  and 
bone  meal  at  reasonable  prices  will  almost  universally  pay  a good  profit 
with  wheat  on  most  soils  needing  fertilizer  at  all,  but  these  materials  have 
been  suggested  only  in  those  cases  where  they  would  be  expected  to  give 
as  good  or  better  returns  than  other  materials.  The  amounts  of  fertilizer 
to  apply  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  fertilizer,  the  soil  and  the  intensity  of 
the  system  of  soil  management;  but  as  a rule,  the  range  should  be  from 
125  to  200  pounds  to  the  acre. 


Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


9 


THE  FERTILIZATION  OF  OATS 

Thus  far  comparatively  little  fertilizer  has  been  used  on  oats  in  Mis- 
souri. This  is  due  primarily  to  two  causes.  First,  the  rather  warm  spring 
and  early  summer  weather  of  Missouri  often  results  in  comparatively  low 
yields  of  light  grain  and  under  such  conditions  fertilizers  do  not  give  much 
response.  Second,  the  market  value  of  oats  is  too  low  to  pay  a very  large 
return  on  fertilizers  applied.  In  average  seasons  and  on  lands  of  low  fer- 
tility, the  same  fertilizers  recommended  for  wheat  will  usually  pay.  As  an 
average  of  a series  of  years,  however,  the  Experiment  Station  has  not  re- 
ceived a very  marked  money  return  from  the  fertilization  of  oats.  There 
is  one  matter  that  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  this  connection  and  that 
is  the  results  that  may  be  expected  from  the  fertilizer  on  the  clover  or 
grass  sown  with  that  oats.  Often  on  lands  of  low  fertility,  this  return  may 
be  sufficient  to  bring  a final  net  profit  wFile  the  return  on  the  oats  crop 
alone  is  small. 

THE  FERTILIZATION  OF  CLOVER  AND  GRASS 

It  is  not  common  in  Missouri  to  use  fertilizer  on  either  clover  or  grass 
alone.  However,  when  the  fertilizer  is  applied  to  the  nurse  crop,  as  in  the 
case  of  wheat  or  oats,  the  results  are  often  very  striking  on  these  follow- 
ing crops.  As  a matter  of  fact  one  of  the  marked  returns  from  phosphatic 
fertilizers,  particularly  bone  meal,  is  on  clover  or  grass  following  the 
small  grain  with  which  the  fertilizer  is  used.  For  alfalfa  either  bone  meal, 
at  reasonable  prices,  or  acid  phosphate  applied  rather  heavily  when  seed- 
ing down,  using  300  to  400  pounds  per  acre,  will  usually  be  accompanied 
by  very  good  returns. 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Report  of  the  Chemist 

L.  D.  Haigh 

Assistant  Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 

INSPECTION 

In  the  work  of  fertilizer  inspection  in  the  state  there  were  collected, 
during  the  year  1920,  499  samples  of  commercial  fertilizers  representing  191 
different  brands.  Inspectors  visited  110  towns  in  42  counties. 

Owing  to  large  stocks  of  fertilizer  being  carried  over  from  the  previous 
season,  the  sale  of  fertilizer  in  the  spring  of  1920  was  limited.  The  price 
of  fertilizer  materially  advanced  for  the  fall  season  and  this  advance  had 
a tendency  to  reduce  the  amount  of  fertilizer  sales. 

An  idea  of  the  distribution  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  Missouri  may  be 
gained  from  a study  of  Table  8.  This  table  indicates  approximately  the 
total  tonnage  and  the  tonnage  of  each  kind  of  fertilizer  sold  in  each  county 
of  Missouri  during  1920.  These  figures  are  based  upon  the  reports  of  ship- 
ments made  by  the  companies  operating  in  Missouri,  and  their  complete- 
ness will  depend  therefore,  upon  the  thoroness  with  which  the  companies 
have  reported.  Most  of  the  companies  report  regularly  and  state  that  their 
reports  are  accurate.  Some  shipments  are  occasionally  omitted  from  the 
report,  especially  local  shipments.  This  table  is  therefore  only  approximate. 

To  explain  the  classification,  Bone  Fertilizer  means  all  Raw  and 
Steamed  Bone  Meals  unmixed  with  any  other  material.  Acid  phosphate 
includes  all  grades:  18  per  cent,  16  per  cent  and  14  per  cent.  By 

High  Grade  Mixed  Fertilizer  is  meant  all  brands  containing  14  units  or 
more  of  plant  food;  by  Medium  Grade,  less  than  14,  but  more  than  10  units; 
by  Low  Grade  those  that  contain  10  units  or  less  of  plant  food.  Under 
Miscellaneous  are  included  all  simple  fertilizer  materials,  except  bone  and 
acid  phosphate;  such  as  dried  blood,  ammonium  sulphate,  nitrate  of  soda, 
potash  salts,  dried  manure  and  basic  slag. 

The  bulk  of  the  fertilizer  sales  in  the  state  is  made  in  the  fall  season 
for  use  on  wheat.  Some  use  is  made  of  fertilizer  for  corn  and  oats  and 
this  use  will  undoubtedly  increase.  In  certain  localities  fertilizer  also  finds 
some  sale  in  the  spring  for  the  growing  of  special  crops,  such  as  tomatoes 
and  melons  and  to  a small  extent  for  cotton. 

Since  prices  on  all  merchandise  have  a tendency  now  to  decrease,  some 
decrease  in  the  price  of  fertilizer  seems  probable,  especially  for  mixed  fer- 
tilizer. 

The  following  violations  of  the  state  fertilizer  law  were  found  by  the 
inspectors. 

1.  Goods  found  on  sale  which  had  not  been  registered. 

Bowker’s  Ammoniated  Food  for  Flowers  made  by  Bowker  Fertilizer 
Company  of  New  York,  and  Archias’  Fairy  Brand  Plant  Food  put  out  by 
the  Archias  Seed  Store,  Sedalia,  were  found  on  sale  by  the  Columbia  Floral 
Company,  Columbia,  Mo.  These  goods  were  not  registered  during  1920 
and  the  companies  were  notified  that  their  sale  was  prohibited  until  such 
registration  should  be  filed. 


Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


11 


A shipment  of  one  and  one-half  tons  of  Sheep  Manure  from  Armour 
Fertilizer  Works,  E.  St.  Louis,  was  found  at  Barnes  Hospital,  St.  Louis. 
No  registration  for  this  brand  had  been  filed;  but  upon  notifying  Armour 
of  this  fact,  the  registration  was  filed  in  the  usual  form  by  the  Company. 

League  the  Florist,  Hannibal,  Mo.  had  on  sale,  Vaughns  Lawn  and 
Garden  Fertilizer  in  5 pound  packages,  put  out  by  Vaughn’s  Seed  Store, 
Chicago,  111.  The  dealer  was  notified  that  the  sale  of  these  goods  was  ille- 
gal until  registration  of  the  same  should  be  filed  with  the  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station. 

A quantity  of  fertilizer  labelled  Special  Mixture,  put  out  by  Douglass 
Fertilizer  Company  was  found  at  the  warehouse  of  T.  M.  Gentry,  Cabool. 
This  had  not  been  registered  and  the  Company  were  notified  to  file  the 
registration  for  this  brand  at  once. 

Pulverized  Sheep  Manure,  put  out  by  the  Natural  Guano  Co.,  of  Aurora, 
111.  had  been  sold  to  C.  C.  Wonneman,  florist,  Mexico,  Mo.  Upon  notifica- 
tion, the  Company  filed  the  registration  for  this  brand  with  the  Experi- 
ment Station  as  required  by  law. 

“Zenke’s  New  Plant  Life,”  a liquid  fertilizer  put  up  by  the  Excell  Labo- 
ratories, was  found  on  sale  at  the  store  of  C.  Young  and  Sons  Co.,  1406 
Olive  Street,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Registration  for  this  brand  was  filed  by  the 
Excell  Laboratories  upon  notification  to  the  Company  that  this  was  re- 
quired by  our  state  law. 

Guano  Products  Plant  Food,  a package  fertilizer,  prepared  by  the  Photo 
Feed  and  Guano  Co.,  4121  LaSalle  St.,  Chicago,  was  also  found  on  sale  at 
the  store  of  C.  Young  and  Sons  Co.,  St.  Louis.  These  goods  were  ordered 
to  be  registered  before  further  sales  could  be  made. 

2.  Registered  Goods  found  on  sale  without  the  registration  tags. 

Red  Snapper  Plant  Food,  put  up  and  registered  by  the  National  Plant 
Food  Company,  was  found  on  sale  at  the  store  of  the  Columbia  Floral  Co., 
Columbia,  Mo.  Registration  labels  were  supplied  by  the  Company  upon 
notification  of  this  discrepancy. 

Fertilizer,  purchased  from  American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  was 
being  sold  by  the  Farmers  Cooperative  Elevator  Co.,  Liege,  Mo.  without 
the  registration  tags  attached  to  the  sacks.  These  tags  had  been  furnished 
by  the  manufacturer  but  had  not  been  attached  by  the  dealer.  The  latter 
was  notified  to  attach  these  tags  before  further  sales  could  be  made. 

The  Salisbury  Milling  Co.,  Salisbury,  had  transferred  an  old  stock  of 
fertilizer  from  the  ro'tted  sacks  to  new  sacks,  but  had  not  transferred  the 
registration  tags.  The  Company  was  notified  that  it  was  necessary  to 
remove  the  registration  tags  from  the  old  sacks  and  place  these  on  the  new 
before  the  sale  of  these  goods  was  legal. 

A shipment  of  Bone  Meal,  purchased  in  1920  by  A.  E.  Halladay,  Kirks- 
ville,  from  Cudahy  Packing  Co.,  bore  registration  tags  dated  1919. 

Inspectors  found  a shipment  of  Interstate  Fertilizer  Co.,  1-12-1  goods 
at  the  warehouse  of  F.  H.  Veatch,  Alba,  which  bore  Kansas  registration 
tags  instead  of  Missouri  tags. 

At  the  store  of  the  St.  Louis  Seed  Co.,  retail  packages  of  Bone  Meal 
and  Pulverized  Manure  had  been  made  up  from  the  large  sacks  purchased 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 

from  the  Company  and  were  being  sold  without  the  registration  labels 
being  attached.  Other  package  fertilizer  in  the  same  store,  originally  pro- 
vided with  labels,  had  lost  some  of  these  labels  while  standing  on  the 
shelves.  The  St.  Louis  Seed  Company  were  notified  that  these  labels  must 
be  placed  upon  the  packages  before  their  sale  was  legal. 

3.  Goods  found  incorrectly,  incompletely  and  indistinctly  labeled. 

The  shipment  of  Sheep  Manure  at  Barnes  Hospital  from  Armour  Fer- 
tilizer Works,  mentioned  previously  in  this  report,  was  found  labelled  so 
poorly  that  the  guaranteed  composition  was  read  with  much  difficulty.  The 
name  and  address  of  the  manufacturer  did  not  appear  upon  the  sack. 

A shipment  of  Darlings  General  Crop  fertilizer  in  the  hands  of  Produc- 
ers Grain  Co.,  Montgomery,  did  not  show  the  guaranteed  figure  for  nitro- 
gen and  was  labelled  indistinctly.  Other  shipments  of  Darling  and  Co.’s 
goods  in  the  hands  of  Farmers  Elevator  Co.,  Jonesburg  and  of  Hugh  Bon- 
nell,  Bowling  Green,  bore  labels  which  were  difficult  to  read. 

At  the  warehouse  of  the  Farmers’  Exchange  and  Elevator  Co.  of  Pal- 
myra, shipment  were  found  from  Morris  and  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Kan.  which 
were  very  poorly  labelled.  In  some  cases  parts  of  the  label  were  missing 
altogether.  On  other  sacks,  while  apparently  labelled,,  the  figures  or  let- 
ters could  not  be  read. 

The  inspectors  obtained  thruout  the  State,  samples  of  Half  Bone  Meal 
Half  Acid  Phospate,  put  out  by  Armour  Fertilizer  Works  and  the  Tennes- 
see Chemical  Company.  This  brand  is  registered  as  Available  Phosphoric 
Acid  11  per  cent.  None  of  the  shipments  inspected  were  labelled  with  the 
figure  for  Available  Phosphoric  Acid,  but  instead  all  bore  the  label,  “Total 
Phosphoric  Acid  20  per  cent.”  The  companies  were  notified  that  the  figure 
for  Available  Phosphoric  Acid  must  be  stated  on  all  the  labels  for  this 
brand. 

Shipments  of  Raw  Bone  Meal  from  Calumet  Fertilizer  Co.,  on  sale  by 
T.  R.  Shaffer,  Sullivan,  did  not  bear  the  name  and  address  of  the  manu- 
facturer. Special  Bone  Meal  at  the  same  store  was  too  poorly  labelled  to 
be  read  with  certainty. 

Shipments  of  fertilizer  from  Swift  and  Co.,  E.  St.  Louis,  at  the  ware- 
house of  Henry  Bridewell,  Northview  and  of  the  Farmers’  Exchange, 
Springfield,  bore  indistinct  labels,  which  were  read  with  much  difficulty. 

The  Home  Trading  Co.,  Lebanon,  had  on  hand  Sco  Raccoon  Mixture, 
purchased  from  the  Southern  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Little  Rock,,  Ark.  which  was 
not  labelled  either  in  brand  name  or  guaranteed  composition  in  exact  agree- 
ment with  their  registration.  This  is  a violation  of  the  state  law  and  the 
company  were  so  notified. 

Tupelo  2-12-2  fertilizer  from  Tupelo  Fertilizer  Factory,  at  the  ware- 
house of  the  Farmers’  Exchange,  Walnut  Grove,  bore  no  figures  showing 
the  percentage  of  Available  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash  present.  At  the 
same  place  from  the  same  manufacturer  was  found  Tupelo  18  per  cent  Acid 
Phosphate  labelled  in  accordance  with  the  Kansas  State  Law  showing  per- 
centage of  phosphorus  instead  of  phosphoric  acid.  In  like  manner,  at  the 
warehouse  of  the  Farmers  Grain  and  Supply  Co.,  Golden  City,  Wilson’s 
Kali  Phosphate  from  Wilson  and  Company,  Kansas  City,  was  found 


Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


13 


labelled  as  per  the  Kansas  State  Law,  guaranteeing  phosphorus  and  potas- 
sium instead  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  respectively,  as  required  by  the 
Missouri  State  Law. 

The  packages  of  Bone  Meal  and  Pulverized  Manure  at  the  store  of  the 
St.  Louis  Seed  Co.,  referred  to  previously,  did  not  show  the  name  and 
address  of  the  manufacturer  on  the  labels. 

REGISTRATION 

For  the  year  1920,  37  manufacturers  registered  502  brands  of  fertilizer 
for  sale  in  the  State  of  Missouri;  in  1919,  37  manufacturers  registered  431 
brands.  While  a larger  number  of  brands  were  registered  this  year  than 
last,  the  number  of  brands  sold  this  year  is  apparently  less. 

The  fertilizer  inspectors  found  and  sampled  191  different  brands.  By 
far  the  larger  amount  of  samples  obtained,  60  per  cent  represented  only  5 
different  analyses  or  general  kinds  which  have  the  largest  sale  (see  Table  8). 
The  remaining  brands  are  represented  by  comparativly  few  samples. 

It  is  a matter  of  great  importance  that  purchasers  of  fertilizer  place 
their  orders-  with  manufacturers  whose  goods  have  previously  been  regis- 
tered with  the  Experiment  Station  as  prescribed  by  law.  In  Table  7 will  be 
found  the  names  of  manufacturers  and  the  brands  of  fertilizer  which  they 
will  offer  for  sale  in  1921.  In  order  that  the  sale  of  any  brand  of  fertilizer 
may  be  legal,  registration  of  the  brand  name  and  guaranteed  composition 
must  be  filed  with  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  before 
such  sales  are  made.  If  the  manufacturer  or  the  brand  name  of  the  fer- 
tilizer which  is  to  be  purchased  is  not  found  in  this  table,  it  is  best  to  con- 
sult the  chemist  in  charge  of  the  inspection  for  information.  Some  regis- 
trations are  filed  after  this  bulletin  goes  to  press  and,  for  this  reason,  do  not 
appear  in  the  table. 

The  attention  of  purchases  of  fertilizer  is  called  to  some  other  provi- 
sions of  the  law  which  are  framed  for  their  protection.  Every  sack  or 
package  of  fertilizer  must  be  plainly  labelled,  showing  its  brand  name, 
guaranteed  composition  and  the  name  and  address  of  the  manufacturer. 
The  above  label  must  correspond  in  detail  to  the  reading  as  it  is  filed  with 
the  Experiment  Station  in  the  process  of  registration.  To  each  sack  or 
package  must  also  be  attached  a tag  or  label,  certifying  to  the  fact  of  regis- 
tration and  bearing  the  fac-simile  signature  of  F.  B.  Mumford,  director  of 
the  Experiment  Station  at  Columbia.  This  tag  must  not  be  interpreted  to 
mean  that  the  fertilizer  is  guaranteed  by  the  Experiment  Station  as  to 
quality  and  composition.  It  does  mean,  however,  that  the  goods  have  been 
registered;  that  the  manufacturer  himself  guarantees  the  goods  to  be  as 
labelled  and  the  sale  of  the  goods  is  permitted  under  the  law. 

An  increasingly  large  number  of  brands  of  fertilizer  in  packages  are 
being  sold  in  the  State  for  use  on  lawns,  gardens  and  plants.  The  attention 
of'  dealers,  who  sell  such  goods,  is  called  to  the  necessity  for  registration 
of  these  brands  also.  Do  not  purchase  from  any  manufacturer  unless  he  can 
furnish  proof  that  registration  of  his  goods  are  on  file  at  the  Missouri  Ag- 
ricultural Experiment  Station.  When  such  goods  are  received,  see  that  the 
registration  labels  are  on  each  package  before  placing  it  on  the  shelves. 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Goods,  not  so  labeled,  are  not  permitted  to  be  sold.  When  these  provisions 
are  met  however,  the  dealer  and  his  customer  are  protected  in  their  pur- 
chase as  the  goods  are  likely  to  be  as  represented. 

As  further  protection  to  the  purchaser,  the  Missouri  Fertilizer  Law  pro- 
vides for  inspection  of  fertilizers  after  delivery,  in  order  to  check  up  the 
correctness  of  the  labels  and  to  see  that  the  requirements  regarding  sales 
have  been  met.  Shipments  of  fertilizer  in  freight  cars,  warehouses  and  stores 
are  examined  as  to  labels  and  registration  tags.  Samples  of  the  contents 
of  the  containers  are  carefully  drawn  according  to  the  bfficial  methods  of 
sampling  and  sent  to  the  laboratories  of  the  Experiment  Station  for  analy- 
sis. These  analytical  results  are  published  side  by  side  with  the  guaranteed 
analysis  in  the  annual  fertilizer  inspection  report  from  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  and  distributed  free  of  charge  to  users  and  handlers 
of  fertilizers  thruout  the  state  as  long  as  the  edition  lasts. . 

Purchasers  of  fertilizer  and  dealers  are  urged  to  study'  carefully  this 
printed  report  of  the  inspection  as  a guide  to  the  purchases  which  they 
make  and  for  other  information  such  as  legal  requirements  of  sales.  Any 
information  desired  by  anyone  on  the  subject  will  be  gladly  furnished  on 
addressing  a letter  of  inquiry  to  the  Director  of  the  Experiment  Station, 
or  to  the  chemist  in  charge  of  the  fertilizer  inspection. 


COMPARATIVE  VALUATION 

The  prices  on  fertilizer  materials  have  shown  a strong  tendency  to 
advance  in  price  during  1920  following  the  general  trend  of  prices  of  all 
classes  of  merchandise.  In  accordance  with  this  fact,  the  value  of  nitrogen 
has  been  raised  from  $7.00  to  $7.50  per  unit;  -available  phosphoric  acid, 
from  $1.50  to  $1.60  per  unit;  potash  from  $3  to  $4  per  unit.  Total  phos- 
phoric acid  remains  at  $1  per  unit,  the  value  used  last  year. 

These  values  have  been  selected  after  the  usual  consideration  of  prices 
for  fertilizer  materials  which  have  prevailed  during  the  year  in  order  that 
an  average  value  may  be  selected.  The  value  is  so  chosen  that  when  used 
in  figuring  the  value  of  a high  grade  fertilizer,  it  will  show  approximately 
the  cost  to  a purchaser  of  one  ton  of  such  fertilizer  delivered  at  his  railroad 
station.  When  these  values  are  used  with  a low  grade  fertilizer,  the  value 
found  will  be  considerably  below  the  selling  price.  The  larger  proportion 
of  fertilizing  value  is  thus  found  in  the  high  grade  fertilizer  and  the  pur- 
chaser of  this  grade  obtains  the  greatest  value  for  his  money. 

The  use  of  these  unit  values  is  explained  as  follows:  For  example, 

nitrogen  with  the  unit  value  pf  $7.50  means  the  value  of  1 per  cent  in  one 
ton,  or  of  20  pounds  of  nitrogen.  That  is,  one  pound  of  nitrogen  has  a 
value  of  37%  cents.  In  like  manner,  $1.60  per  unit  for  available  phosphoric 
acid  or  for  20  pounds  means  8 cents  per  pound  as  the  cost  of  this  material. 
Potash  at  $4  per  unit  means  a cost  of  20  cents  a pound. 

As  an  example  of  calculating  the  guaranteed  and  found  values  in  a fer- 
tilizer, consider  sample  9-104  in  Table  5.  In  this  fertilizer  the  nitrogen  is 
guaranteed  at  .82  per  cent  or  .82  of  a unit.  Since  one  unit  of  nitrogen  is 
valued  at  $7.50,  the  nitrogen  in  this  fertilizer  is  worth  .82  times  $7.50  or 
$6.15.  The  analysis  shows  that  it  contains  .88  per  cent  of  nitrogen  or  the 


Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


15 


nitrogen  in  this  fertilizer  is  actually  worth  .88  times  $7.50  or  $6.50.  This  is 
45  cents  more  than  is  guaranteed. 

For  the  available  phosphoric  acid  in  the  fertilizer,  10  per  cent  is  guar- 
anteed to  be  present.  The  analysis  shows  the  presence  of  10.21  per  cent. 
Since  the  unit  value  of  available  phosphoric  acid  is  $1.60,  the  available  phos- 
phoric acid  in  this  fertilizer  is  guaranteed  to  be  worth  10  times  $1.60  or 
$16.00,  while  the  analysis  shows  it  to  be  worth  10.21  times  $1.60  or  $16.34, 
a gain  of  34  cents. 

In  like  manner  the  potash  which  is  guaranteed  to  be  present  to  the 
amount  of  1 per  cent  and  found  on  analysis  to  show  1.22  per  cent,  has  a 
guaranteed  value  of  $4  per  ton  in  this  fertilizer  and  a found  value  of  $4.88. 
This  is  88  cents  more  than  guaranteed. 

For  the  fertilizer  in  question  therefore,  there  is  a gain  in  the  values  of 
all  the  constituents;  the  found  value  ,$27.82,  being  a gain  of  $1.67  over  the 
guaranteed  value.  The  results  of  this  calculation  are  summarized  in  Table  1. 


Table  1. — Comparison  oe  Guaranteed  Value  and  Value  Found  by  Analysis 
in  Fertilizer  Sample  9-104 


Fertilizer  Constituents 

Guaranteed 

value 

Found 

value 

Nitrogen  

$ 6.15 
16.00 
4.00 

$ 6.60 
16.34 
4.88 

Available  Phosphoric  Acid  

Potash  

Tntal  

$26.15 

$27.82 

Speaking  further  of  guaranteed  and  found  valuation  which  are  given 
for  each  brand  in  Table  5,  it  must  be  remembered  these  valuations  do  not 
indicate  the  price  one  had  to  pay  per  ton  during  1920  to  dealer  or  manu- 
facturer for  his  fertilizer.  It  is  true,  as  before  stated,  that  in  a high  grade 
fertilizer,  these  valuations  will  approximate  the  selling  price  of  these  goods 
in  1920,  but  in  a low  grade  fertilizer  this  valuation  will  be  far  below  the 
selling  price.  Since  this  valuation  represents  the  part  of  the  fertilizer 
which  is  plant  food,  we  see  that  in  the  purchase  of  high  grade  fertilizer  one 
gets  more  fertilizer  for  the  money  expended.  Since  fertilizer  prices  may 
change  materially  in  1921,  these  valuations  should  receive  corrsponding 
revision  before  being  considered  for  1921  goods. 

In  Table  2 is  shown  the  variations  in  value  from  the  manufacturer’s 
guarantee  for  all  the  samples  of  manufacturers  for  whom  are  reported  three 
or  more  samples  analyzed. 

Of  the  466  samples  analyzed  66  proved  to  be  below  the  guarantee  in 
value;  14.2  per  cent  of  the  total.  Compared  with  the  last  three  years,  this 
is  a distinct  improvement  over  the  conditions  which  then  prevailed  as  shown 
by  the  following. 

In  1919,  16.7  per  cent  of  the  samples  analyzed  gave  valuation  below  the 
guarantee;  in  1918,  30.6  per  cent  were  thus  deficient,  and  in  1917,  the  cor- 
responding result  was  24.4  per  cent. 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


The  total  samples  analyzed  this  year  showed  an  average  valuation  of 
$1.59  above  the  manufacturers’  guaranteed  value.  This  means  that,  consid- 
ering all  the  fertilizer  sold  in  the  state  represented  by  these  samples,  the 
purchasers  receiver  on  the  average  $1.59  worth  of  plant  food  more  in  every 
ton  than  the  manufacturer  guaranteed  to  him  would  be  present.  This  is 
good  proof  of  the  reliability  of  the  value  of  the  fertilizers  sold  in  the  state. 

Compared  to  the  last  three  years,  this  is  an  excellent  showing,  as  we 
observe  from  the  data  which  is  as  follows:  In  1919,  this  value  was  $1.43: 

in  1918,  $1.07;  and  in  1917,  $1.58. 


Table  2. — Variations  in  Value  from  Manufacturer's  Guarantee 


Manufacturer 

No.  of 
samples 
analyzed 

Below  guarantee 

Average 
loss1  per 
ton 

Average 
gain  or 
loss2  per 
ton 

No. 

Per  cent 

American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co., 
Boar’s  Head  Brands 

19 

1 

5.3 

$0.01 

$1.75 

American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co., 
Bradley  Brands 

4 

1 

25.0 

0.11 

1.52 

American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co., 
Empire  Carbon  Works  Brands 

32 

5 

15.6 

5.50 

.78 

American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co., 
Horseshoe  Brands 

14 

3 

21.4 

0.29 

1.11 

Arkansas  Fertilizer  Co 

4 

1 

25.0 

4.48 

—0.24 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  Armour  Brands.  . 

42 

2 

4.7 

0.14 

1.75 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  Big  Crop  Brands 

47 

7 

14.9 

1.25 

1.65 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  Tuscarora  Brands 

8 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

2.13 

Bone  and  Potash  Fertilizer  Co 

7 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

1.92 

Calumet  Fertilizer  Co 

7 

3 

42.8 

0.07 

0.98 

Cudahy  Packing  Co 

6 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

3.57 

Darling  and  Co 

13 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

4.32 

Douglass  Fertilizer  Co 

9 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

2.28 

Empire  Guano  Co 

7 

2 

28.6 

0.50 

1.61 

Gate  City  Fertilizer  Co.  

3 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

2.43 

Interstate  Fertilizer  Co 

19 

10 

52.6 

1.51 

—0.18 

Meridian  Fertilizer  Factory  

14 

2 

14.3 

0.43 

1.37 

Morris  and  Co 

17 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

2.27 

Pulverized  Manure  Co 

5 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

1.58 

Read  Phosphate  Co.  

17 

3 

17.7 

1.14 

2.01 

Swift  and  Co.,  Swift  Brands  

134 

24 

17.9 

1.40 

1.42 

Swift  and  Co.,  Pioneer  Brands  

13 

2 

15.3 

4.08 

0.97 

Tennessee  Chemical  Co 

4 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

5.19 

Tupelo  Fertilizer  Factory 

4 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

1.18 

Virginia-Carolina  Chemical  Co 

8 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

1.65 

Wilson  and  Co 

9 

0 

0.0 

0.00 

1.39 

T otal  

466 

66 

14.2 

$1.58 

_j_$  1 .59 

1This  average  is  for  those  samples  whose  found  value  per  ton  is  less  than  the  guaranteed 
value  per  ton. 

2This  is  the  average  for  all  the  samples  of  each  brand  and  company  indicated.  When 
the  minus  sign  stands  in  front  of  the  figure  it  means  that  this  average  valuation  is  below  the 
guaranteed  valuation  per  ton  by  the  amount  indicated. 


Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


17 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS 

The  detailed  report  of  the  analysis  of  samples  of  fertilizer  collected  by 
the  inspectors  during  the  year  1920  is  found  in  Table  5.  These  are  arranged 
alphabetically  under  the  manufacturer’s  name  and  the  name  of  the  brands. 
When  the  percentages  and  valuations  are  reported  below  the  amounts  guar- 
anteed by  the  manufacturer,  these  figures  are  indicated  in  the  table  with 
bold  faced  type. 

In  addition  to  the  samples  collected  by  the  inspectors,  a number  of 
samples  are  analyzed  which  are  sent  in  by  the  purchasers  themselves. 
These  samples  are  reported  under  “Miscellaneous  Samples”  at  the  end  of 
Table  5.  Unless  the  sender  is  careful  to  select  his  sample  from  different 
parts  of  the  shipment,  the  analysis  may  be  valueless  in  indicating  the  aver- 
age composition  of  his  purchase.  The  Experiment  Station  analyzes  all  such 
samples,  however,  when  this  does  not  interfere  with  the  work  on  the  offi- 
cially inspected  samples. 

However,  the  following  information  is  required  of  the  sender  before 
this  analysis  can  be  made:  Name  and  address  of  the  sender,  name  and 

address  of  the  manufacturer,  the  brand  name  and  guaranteed  composition 
as  it  appears  upon  the  label.  If  the  information  cannot  be  furnished,  a 
charge  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  work  will  be  made. 

The  percentage  results  from  Table  5 are  summarized  in  Table  4 and 
compared  with  the  corresponding  results  of  the  last  three  years  in  Table  3. 


Table  3. — Summary  oe  Deficiencies  in  Plant  Food 


Plant  Food 

No.  of 
of 

deter- 
mina- 
tions 
in  192C 

Determinations  deficient 

Improvement1  1920 

1920 

per 

cent 

1919 

per 

cent 

1918 

per 

cent 

1917 

per 

cent 

Over 

1919 

per 

cent 

Over 

1918 

per 

cent 

Over 

1917 

per 

cent 

Nitrogen  

361 

25.7 

26.0 

36.2 

26.6 

0.3 

10.5 

0.9 

Total  Phosphoric  Acid 

58 

22.4 

39.7 

40.0 

10.4 

17.3 

17.6 

—12.0 

Available  Phosphoric  Acid . . 

408 

10.5 

15.9 

28.1 

26.1 

5.4 

17.6 

15.6 

Potash  

233 

32.6 

38.7 

51.8 

53.3 

6.1 

19.2 

20.7 

Total  

1060 

21.2 

26.1 

37.0 

25.4 

4.9 

15.8 

4.2 

^he  sign  — in  front  of  the  figure  indicates  the  results  this  year  make  a poorer  show- 
ing than  in  the  indicated  year,  by  the  percentage  given. 


A study  of  these  data  indicate  that  the  samples  of  the  fertilizer  manufactur- 
ers have  made  the  best  showing  for  this  period,  as  a less  number  of  deter- 
minations this  year  fell  below  the  guarantee  than  ever  before,  with  one 
exception.  In  1917  the  showing  for  total  phosphoric  acid  was  12  per  cent 
better  than  for  this  year.  By  this  we  may  conclude  that  the  manufacturers 
have  succeeded  unusually  well  in  maintaining  the  full  percentage  of  the 
plant  food  constituents  in  the  goods  put  out  this  year.  As  usual,  potash 
continues  to  show  the  largest  percentage  of  deficiencies,  due,  largely  per- 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


haps,  to  the  variability  in  the  composition  of  the  potash  supplies  of  the  home 
land  upon  which  the  manufacturers  have  had  to  rely  for  their  stocks  of 
this  material. 

During  the  year,  397  samples  of  limestone  for  agricultural  purposes 
were  tested  for  their  power  to  reduce  soil  acidity.  The  results  of  this  work 
will  be  found  in  Table  6.  Missouri  soils,  in  general,  need  applications  of 
lime  or  limestone  for  the  best  results  in  crop  production  and  this  need  is 
becoming  wider  recognized  every  year  by  the  farmers  of  the  State.  It  is 
good  policy  to  test  all  rock  which  is  to  be  crushed  for  this  purpose  in  order 
to  avoid  the  use  of  material  which  may  have  too  low  a value  to  pay  for  the 
work  which  must  be  expended  upon  it. 

Most  of  the  limestones  of  the  State  contain  magnesium  and  this  often 
causes  the  value  of  the  sample  to  exceed  100  per  cent  as  it  is  reported  in 
calcium  carbonate  equivalent.  This  is  no  detriment,  for  in  truth,  the  value 
of  the  stone  is  directly  proportional  to  the  figure  for  calcium  carbonate 
equivalent. 

The  Experiment  Station  will  test,  free  of  charge,  limestone  which  is  to 
be  used  to  correct  soil  acidity.  With  each  sample  information  must  be 
sent,  locating  the  ledge,  rock  bank  or  quarry  furnishing  the  sample.  This 
information  should  give  the  distance  and  direction  from  the  nearest  town, 
also  the  range,  township,  section,  and  quarter  in  which  the  ledge  is  found. 


Table  4— Summary  of  Total  and  Deficient  Analyses  of  Fertilizer  Constituents  from  Table  5 (Page  19) 


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Table  5 — Fertilizer  Analyses  and  Guarantees:  1920  (Page  22) 


(Page  23) 


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Renfrow,  West  Plains  I 2.471  2. 961  24.001  26.37' I I ' I I I 42 . 53'  48.57 


Table  5 — Fertilizer  Analyses  and  Guarantees:  1920 (Page  24) 


Value 
Per  Ton 

F’ndf 

46.29 

34.18 

33.35 

34.21 

34.86 

34.04 

34.83 

28.03 

53.66 

54.22 

54.51 

52.49 

21.81 

29.93 

28.95 

23.79 

24.55 

23.55 

23.36 

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b 

42.53 

33.18 

33.18 

33.18 

33.18 

33.18 

33.18 
26.15 
49.75 
49.75 

49.75 

49.75 

20.78 

29.18 

29.18 

22.95 

22.95 

22.95 

22.95 

s§q 

oW 

F’ndf 

Per 

Cent 

2.00 

2.00 

2.05 

2.16 

1.89 

2.10 

1.02 

1.53 
1 . 15 

1.06 

1.02 

1.07 

1.05 

1.03 

* 

b 

Per 

Cent 

200 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

1.00 

00  I 

00  I 

00  I 

00  I 

00  ‘ I 

00  l 
09  I 

Phosphoric  Acid,  P2O5 

Available 

F’ndf 

Per 

Cent 

9.05 

8.06 
8.38 

8.65 

8.30 

8.83 

10.79 

2.16 

8.19 

7.80 

8.52 

8.73 

8.01 

8.09 

* 

b 

Per 

Cent 

8.00 

8.00 

8.00 

8.00 

8.00 

8.00 

10.00 

0000000 
10  0 0 0 0 0 0 

1-1  00  00  00  00  GO  00 

Insoluble 

F’ndf 

Per 

Cent 

0.71 

0.97 

0.91 

0.66 

1.04 

0.35 

0.40 

0.28 

0.83 

0.40 

0.13 

0.31 

0.31 

0.17 

* 

'd 

b 

Per 

Cent 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

Total 

+- 

'a 

a 

Per 

Cent 

24.84 

9.76 

9.03 
9.29 

9.31 

9.34 

9.18 

11.19 

23.73 

23.32 

24.28 

22.04 

2.44 

9.02 

8.20 

8.65 

9.04 

8.32 
8.26 

* 

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b 

Per 

Cent 

24.00 

22.00 
22.00 

22.00 

22.00 

Nitrogen 

F’ndf 

Per 

Cent 

2.86 

1.56 

1.66 

1.68 

1.65 

1.76 

1.64 

0.89 
3 99 
4.12 

4.03 

4.06 

1.63 

1.63 

1 63 

0.81 

0.84 
0!  87 
0.84 

* 

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b 

Per 

Cent 

2.47 

1.65 

1.65 

1.65 

1.65 

1.65 

1.65 

0.82 

3.70 

3.70 

3.70 

3.70 

1.65 

1.65 

1.65 

0.82 

0.82 

0.82 

0.82 

Dealer 

O.  A.  Gregory,  Northview..  . 
E.  B.  Evans,  Mountain  Grove 
Moye  Feed  Co., 

Phillip  sburg 

Alford  Rector,  Bourbon 

Wellsville  Hdw.  & Imp.  Co., 

Wells  ville 

Farmers  Cooperative  Elev. 

Co.,  Elsberry 

Holt-Taylor  Merc.  Co., 

New  Bloomfield 

Alford  Rector,  Bourbon 

Farm  Club.  St.  James 

T.  R.  Shaeffer,  Sullivan 

H.  B.  Sutter  Impl.,  Co., 
Snrinerfield 

Wellsville  Hdw.  & Imp.  Co., 
Wellsville 

Barnes  Hospital,  St.  Louis . . 

E.  L.  Miller,  Conway 

Farmers  Elevator, 

Martinsburg 

P.  O.  Foristell,  Foristell 

H.  J.  Schofield,  Norwood  . . . 

E.  B.  Evans,  Mountain  Grove 
C.  P.  Patton  Hdw.  Co., 
Cabool 

Manufacturer 

and 

Brands 

Bone  Meal 

Grain  Grower 

Grain  Grower 

Grain  Grower 

Grain  Grower 

Grain  Grower 

Grain  Grower 

New  Record  Brand 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

Sheep  Manure 

Special  Grain  Grower 

Special  Grain  Grower 

Wheat,  Corn  and  Oats 

Special 

Wheat,  Corn  and  Oats 

Special 

Wheat,  Corn  and  Oats 

Special 

Wheat,  Corn  and  Oats 

Special 

Lab. 

No. 

9-197 

9-198 

9-199 

9-200 

9-201 

9-202 

9-203 

9-204 

9-205 

9-206 

9-207 

9-208 

5-22 

9-209 

9-210 

5-19 

9-211 

9-212 

9-213 

(Page  25) 


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Table  5 — Fertilizer  Analyses  and  Guarantees:  1920 (Page  28) 


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Table  5 — Fertilizer  Analyses  and  Guarantees:  1920  (Page  30) 


9-247 1 Pure  Ground  Bone 


(Page  31) 


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(Page  33) 


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(Page  35) 


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(Page  39) 


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Value 
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30.61 

31.81 

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36.74 

26.45 

30.56 

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23.20 

36.15 

22.95 

28.38 

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11.63 

16.01 

8.26 

8.10 

12.19 

12.65 

12.35 

8.45 

9 58 

0.31 

11  22 

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10.98 

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8.00 

12.00 

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0.77 

0.76 

1.51 

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1.49 

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0.85 

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1.54 

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2.00 

2.00 

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1.00 

2.00 

2.00 

0.50 

Total 

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12.40 

16.77 

9.77 

9.60 

13.68 

14.16 

13.20 

29  84 

9.67 
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0.38 

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0 

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CO 

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5.71 

1.81 

1.66 

0.88 

0.91 

0. 92 

1 . 18 
2.03 

1.50 

0.84 

T3 

4^ 

b 

Per 

Cent 

5.62 

1.65 

1.65 

0.82 

0.82 

0.82 

0.82 

1.65 

0.82 

Dealer 

Columbia  Floral  Co., 

Columbia 

Farmers  Grain  & Supply  Co., 

Elmer  Watson,  Pierce  City.  . 
Farmers  Grain  & Supply  Co., 

Golden  City 

Elmer  Watson,  Pierce  City. . 

Milo  Smith.  Asbury 

Farmers  Grain  & Supply  Co., 

Golden  City 

Farmers  Grain  & Supply  Co., 

Farmers  Grain  & Supply  Co., 

Golden  City 

Elmer  Watson,  Pierce  City. . 

J.  L.  Fidler,  Clayton 

J.  H.  H.  Mote,  Carthage.  . . 

Manufacturer 

and 

Brands 

Vita  Flora  Co., 

Joplin,  Missouri 

Vita  Flora 

Wilson  & Co., 

Kansas  City,  Kansas 
Red  “ W”  Brands 

Acid  Phosphate 

Corn  and  Wheat  Special .... 
Corn  and  Wheat  Special .... 

Grain  Grower 

Grain  Grower 

Kali-Phosphate 

Special  Bone  Meal 

Special  Grain  Fertilizer 

Two-Ten  Fertilizer 

Miscellaneous  Samples 

Tea  Waste  (moist)  (Mon- 
santo Chemical  Works) . . . 
Interstate  1-12-1  (Interstate 
Fertilizer  Co . ) 

Lab. 

No. 

9-422 

9-525 

9-526 

9-527 

9-528 

9-529 

9-530 

9-531 

9-532 

9-533 

4- 11 

5- 141 

(Page  47) 


O U5  CO 

co  co  co  oo 

till 
03  05  05  O O 


48  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  6. — Power  of  Limestone  and  Similar  Materials  to  Neutralize  Soil 

Acidity 

Expressed  in  Percentage  of  Calcium  Carbonate 


Lab. 

No. 

Sender 

Material 

Calcium 

carbonate 

equivalent 

1-1 

Louis  H.  Meyer,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  1 

100 . 62 

1-2 

Louis  H.  Meyer,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  2 

100 . 64 

1-3 

A.  I.  Foard,  Benton 

Limestone  No.  1 

105.91 

1-4 

A.  I.  Foard,  Benton 

Limestone  No.  2 

104.30 

1-18 

Crushed  Limestone 

98.42 

1-19 

Sevarous  Moll,  St.  Mary’s 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.81 

1-20 

Sevarous  Moll,  St.  Mary’s 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.84 

1-21 

Paul  B.  Popp,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  1 

103.10 

1-22 

Paul  B.  Popp,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.54 

1-23 

Paul  B.  Popp,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  3 

90.22 

1-24 

Paul  B.  Popp,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  4 

94.31 

1-25 

Paul  B.  Popp,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  5 

99.72 

1-29 

Geiler  Bros.,  Altenburg 

Limestone 

80.49 

1-34 

C.  E.  Casey,  Center 

Limestone  No.  1 

79.46 

1-35 

Limestone  No.  2 

93.27 

1-36 

Marion  Layton 

Limestone  No.l 

95.21 

1-37 

Marion  Layton 

Limestone  No.  2 

91.82 

1-38 

Limestone  No.  3 

97.24 

1-39 

Limestone  No.  4 

92.36 

1-44 

Emmett  Giesmann,  Wentzville.  . 

Limestone 

100.09 

1-45 

H.  I.  Smith,  Caledonia 

Limestone 

97.33 

1-49 

Tom  Murray,  Brighton 

Limestone 

98.03 

1-50 

C.  W.  Cline,  Uniontown 

Limestone 

89.80 

1-51 

T.  B.  Miller,  West  Plains 

Limestone 

91.57 

2-11 

Frank  Liebermann,  Freeman.  . . . 

Limestone  No.  1 

98.47 

2-12 

Frank  Liebermann,  Freeman.  . . . 

Limestone  No.  2 

87.39 

2-15 

A.  M.  Riehl,  Potosi 

Limestone  No.  1 

101.69 

2-16 

A.  M.  Riehl,  Potosi 

Limestone  No.  2 

2.04 

2-17 

A.  M.  Riehl,  Potosi 

Limestone  No.  3 

104.06 

2-18 

A.  M.  Riehl,  Potosi 

Limestone  No.  4 

104 . 50 

2-19 

A.  M.  Riehl,  Potosi  

Limestone  No.  5 

102.73 

2-20 

Carl  C.  Montgomery,  Milan  .... 

Limestone  No.  1 

93.98 

2-21 

Carl  C.  Montgomery,  Milan  .... 

Limestone  No.  2 

99.48 

2-22 

Carl  C.  Montgomery,  Milan  .... 

Limestone  No.  3 

94.48 

2-23 

Carl  C.  Montgomery,  Milan  .... 

Limestone  No.  4 

75.08 

2-24 

Geo.  W.  Catts,  Springfield 

Limestone  No.  1 

93.86 

2-25 

Geo.  W.  Catts,  Springfield 

Limestone  No.  2 

100.09 

2-26 

Geo.  W.  Catts,  Springfield 

Limestone  No.  3 

100.02 

2-31 

B.  D.  Lemert,  Harrisburg 

Limestone 

99.31 

2-32 

P.  D.  Dillard,  St.  Mary’s  

Limestone  (powdered) 

101 . 11 

2-33 

A.  I.  Foard,  Benton 

Limestone  

101.09 

2-35 

Harry  Eiken,  Osage  City 

Limestone 

87.63 

2-36 

W.  L.  Flanery,  Fredericktown. . . 

Limestone 

106.07 

2-37 

A.  L.  Moore,  St.  Mary’s 

Limestone  No.l 

85.09 

2-38 

A.  L.  Moore,  St.  Mary’s 

Limestone  No.  2 

88.60 

2-39 

Theo.  Lapp,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  1 

85.06 

2-40 

Theo.  Lapp,  Biehle  .... 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.07 

2-44 

W.  S.  Avf  ry,  Illmo 

Red  Limestone 

92.27 

2-45 

W.  S.  Avery,  Illmo 

Gray  Limestone 

96.26 

2-46 

W.  S.  Avery,  Illmo 

Black  Limestone 

99.65 

2-47 

H.  L.  Bruns,  Catawissa 

Limestone  No.  1 

55.61 

2-48 

H.  L.  Bruns,  Catawissa 

Limestone  No.  2 

100.47 

2-49 

H.  L.  Bruns,  Catawissa 

Limestone  No.  3 

98.64 

2-50 

H.  L.  Bruns,  Catawissa 

Limestone  No.  4 

70.17 

2-51 

H.  L.  Bruns,  Catawissa 

Limestone  No.  5 

95.49 

2-52 

H.  L.  Bruns,  Catawissa 

Limestone  No.  6 

97.79 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


49 


Table  6. — Power  of  Limestone  and  Similar  Materials  to  Neutralize  Soil 

Acidity  (Continued) 

Expressed  in  Percentage  of  Calcium  Carbonate 


Lab. 

No. 

Sender 

Material 

Calcium 

carbonate 

equivalent 

2-53 

Glenn  S.  Hensley,  Farmington . . 

Chats,  Flat  River 

93.36 

2-54 

Crushed  Limestone 

98.49 

2-70 

Limestone  No.  1 

86.03 

2-71 

Limestone  No.  2 

89.03 

2-72 

W.  L.  Flanery,  Fredericktown. . . 

Chats,  Fredericktown 

45.67 

2-73 

Limestone 

.94.50 

3-  1 

P.  J.  Dailey,  Pacific 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.79 

3-  2 * 

P.  J.  Dailey,  Pacific 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.73 

3-  3 

P.  J.  Dailey,  Pacific 

Limestone  No.  3 

100.07 

3-  4 

W.  W.  Lewelling,  Kirksville .... 

Crushed  Limestone 

80.78 

3-  5 

Limestone  No.  1 . . 

97.99 

3-  6 

Limestone  No.  2 

96.93 

3-  7 

Schmidt  Bros.,  Wittenburg 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.43 

3-  8 

Schmidt  Bros.,  Wittenburg 

Limestone  No.  2 

99.70 

3-  9 

Paul  Burroughs,  Wittenburg.  . . . 

Limestone  No.  1 

99.26 

3-10 

Paul  Burroughs,  Wittenburg  . . . 

Limestone  No.  2 

103.05 

3-11 

P.  E.  Vogel,  Climax  Springs  .... 

Limestone 

100.50 

3-12 

Henry  Eiken,  Osage  City 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.20 

3-13 

Henry  Eiken,  Osage  City 

Limestone  No.  2 

102.08 

3-14 

Henry  Engelbrecht,  Jefferson  City 

Limestone  No.  1 

102.83 

3-15 

Henry  Engelbrecht,  Jefferson  City 

Limestone  No.  2 

100.75 

3-16 

Owen  Gudermuth,  Allenton 

Limestone 

98.77 

3-17 

Amos  Lungwitz,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.l 

99.12 

3-18 

Amos  Lungwitz,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.59 

3-19 

Amos  Lungwitz,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  3 

96.09 

3-20 

G.  M.  Ellis,  Grain  Valley 

Limestone 

98.69 

3-21 

W.  W.  Toler,  Olden 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.35 

3-22 

W.  W.  Toler,  Olden 

Limestone  No.  2 

88.09 

3-23 

J.  J.  Russell,  Deepwater 

Limestone 

99.98 

3-24 

A.  P.  Hamilton,  Richmond 

Slush  (dried)  water  purifying 
plant 

94.92 

3-25 

Louis  W.  Zoellner,  Perry ville.  . . 

Limestone 

95.27 

3-26 

J.  J.  Moore,  Perryville 

Limestone  . 

97.25 

3-28 

Chas.  Kramer,  Jefferson  City . . . 

Limestone  No.l 

102.34 

3-29 

Chas.  Kramer,  Jefferson  City  . . . 

Limestone  No.  2 

99.90 

3-30 

M.  C.  Hollems,  Rolla 

Lime  Screenings 

106.94 

3-31 

T.  B.  Miller,  West  Plains 

Limestone  No.  1 

93.34 

3-32 

T.  B.  Miller,  West  Plains 

Limestone  No.  2 

93 . 93 

3-33 

Frank  Willard,  West  Plains 

Limestone 

95 . 96 

3-38 

Loren  C.  Nelson,  Bolckow 

Crushed  Limestone  

81.38 

4-  1 

J.  A.  Crowe,  St.  Genevieve 

Waste  lime  from  kiln 

99.60 

4-  2 

J.  Robert  Hall,  Harrison  ville . . . . 

Crushed  Limestone 

93.88 

4-  3 

Jos.  E.  Ernst,  Biehle 

Limestone 

79.54 

4-  4 

Wm.  H.  Wagenbreth,  Chesterfield 

Limestone 

98.29 

4-  5 

A.  M.  Fry,  Tipton 

Crushed  Rock 

88.36 

4-  6 

A.  C.  Yocum,  Bynumville 

Limestone 

94.88 

4-  7 

Wm.  Schiltz,  New  Cambria 

Limestone 

83.78 

4-  8 

A.  H.  Hoffman,  Perryville 

Limestone  No.  1 

98.19 

4-  9 

A.  H.  Hoffman,  Perryville 

Limestone  No.  2 

101.07 

4-10 

A.  H.  Hoffman,  Perryville 

Limestone  No.  3 

95.62 

4-14 

Paul  Popp,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  5 

102.05 

4-15 

Paul  Popp,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  6 

89.73 

4-18 

J.  W.  Fountain,  Bowling  Green  . 

Limestone  No.l 

99.36 

4-19 

J.  W.  Fountain,  Bowling  Green . 

Limestone  No.  2 

100.72 

4-20 

J.  W.  Fountain,  Bowling  Green . 

Limestone  No.  3 

100  85 

4-21 

J.  W.  Fountain,  Bowling  Green . 

Limestone  No.  4 

99.78 

50  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  6. — Power  of  Limestone  and  Similar  Materials  to  Neutralize  Soil 

Acidity  (Continued) 

Expressed  in  Percentage  of  Calcium  Carbonate 


Lab. 

No. 

Sender 

Material 

Calcium 

carbonate 

equivalent 

5-  1 

R.  A.  Wortham.  Irondale 

j Limestone  No.  1 

100.17 

5-  2 

Limestone  No.  2 . . 

101.36 

5-  3 

Limestone  No.  3 

93 . 60 

5-  5 

Edward  Hemsoth,  St.  Charles.  . . 

Crushed  Limestone 

99.77 

5-  6 

E.  L.  Griggs,  Altamont 

Crushed  Limestone 

74.49 

5-  7 

Crushed  Limestone  

78.64 

5-76 

Limestone 

94.20 

5-78 

L.  A.  Bradbury,  Drexel . . 

Limestone  No.  1 . 

99.92 

5-79 

L.  A.  Bradbury,  Drexel 

i Limestone  No.  2 

94.62 

5-80 

L.  A.  Bradbury,  Drexel 

Limestone  No.  3 

88.91 

5-81 

L.  A.  Bradbury,  Drexel 

Limestone  No.  4 

91.87 

5-82 

L.  A.  Bradbury,  Drexel 

Limestone  No.  5 

96.71 

5-118 

F.  H.  Allison,  Garden  City . . 

Limestone 

97.09 

5-143 

Arch  Briggs,  New  London 

Limestone 

96.07 

5-144 

J.  B.  Mott,  Salisbury 

Limestone  No.l 

52.57 

5-145 

J.  B.  Mott,  Salisbury 

Limestone  No.  2 

94.24 

5-162 

P.  F.  Schowengerdt,  Columbia..  . 

1 Limestone 

88.50 

5-163 

Chas.  Fiehler,  Fronah 

Limestone 

98.32 

5-164 

John  Fiehler,  Seventy-six 

Limestone  No.  1 

102.26 

5-165 

John  Fiehler,  Seventy-six  .... 

Limestone  No.  2 

102.36 

5-166 

John  Fiehler,  Seventy-six 

Limestone  No.  3 

100.36 

5-167 

j Arthur  Moening,  Seventy-six . . . 

, Limestone  No.  1 

99.90 

5-168 

Arthur  Moening,  Seventy-six. . . 

Limestone  No.  2 

92.05 

5-169 

Jos.  Ernst,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.l 

82.42 

5-170 

Jos.  Ernst,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  2 

101.58 

5-171 

S.  J.  Lukefair,  Perryville 

Limestone 

41.33 

5-172 

S.  C.  Anderson,  Seventy-six 

Limestone 

99.00 

6-  1 

F.  H.  Allison,  Garden  City 

Limestone 

99.44 

6-  2 

David  Wald,  Louisiana 

Limestone  No.l 

97.80 

6-  3 

David  Wald,  Louisiana 

Limestone  No.  2 . 

99.29 

6-  4 

David  Wald.  Louisiana 

i Limestone  No.  3 . 

99.91 

6-  5 

David  Wald,  Louisiana . . 

Limestone  No.  4 

99.39 

6-  6 

David  Wald,  Louisiana 

Limestone  No.  5 

99.44 

6-  7 

David  Wald.  Louisiana 

, Limestone  No.  6 

99.24 

6-  8 

Rowe  and  Maness,  Christopher. . 

Limestone  No.  1 

101.92 

6-  9 

G.  M.  Edmondson,  Stella 

Limestone  No.  2 

101.82 

6-10 

, J.  C.  Adams,  Christopher 

Limestone  No.  3 ! 

100 . 22 

6-11 

J.  E.  B.  Cook,  Christopher 

Limestone  No.  4 

101.09 

6-12 

G.  M.  Edmondson,  Stella 

| Limestone  No.  5 

101.48 

6-15 

A.  P.  Thomas,  Sampson 

Limestone 

102.26 

6-17 

Anton  Zoellner,  Biehle 

j Limestone  No.  1 

103 . 43 

6-18 

Anton  Zoellner,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  2 

99.49 

6-19 

Anton  Zoellner,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  3 

100.41 

6-20 

Henry  Roth,  Seventy-Six 

i Limestone 

96.33 

6-21 

H.  V.  Divelbliss.  Peculiar 

Limestone  (Key  19) 

98.86 

6-22 

H.  V.  Divelbliss,  Peculiar 

Limestone  (Key  20) 

100.71 

6-23 

Jos.  N.  Buchheit,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  1 . . 

99.88 

6-24 

Jos.  N.  Buchheit,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.18 

6-25 

John  F.  Nicholson,  St.  Charles.  . 

Limestone  No.  1 

102.21 

6-26 

John  F.  Nicholson,  St.  Charles.  . 

Limestone  No.  2 

102.06 

6-27 

John  F.  Nicholson,  St.  Charles.  . 

Limestone  No.  3 

101.29 

6-30 

Robert  Scyoc,  Spalding 

Limestone 

100 . 08 

6-64 

J.  M.  McKibben,  Bachelor 

Limestone 

101.68 

6 — 95 

W.  E.  Foard,  Sikeston 

Limestone  No.  1 . . 

101.34 

6-96 

W.  E.  Foard,  Sikeston 

Limestone  No.  2 

104.16 

7-  1 

Chas.  Hoehn,  Perryville 

Limestone  No.  1 

88.84 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


51 


Table  6. — Power  of  Limestone  and  Similar  Materials  to  Neutralize  Soil 

Acidity  (Continued) 

Expressed  in  Percentage  of  Calcium  Carbonate 


Lab. 

No. 

Sender 

Material 

Calcium 

carbonate 

equivalent 

7-  2 

Chas.  Hoehn,  Perry ville 

Limestone  No.  2 

93 . 46 

7-  3 

C.  T.  Harvey,  Licking 

Limestone  No.  1 

103  04 

7-  4 

C.  T.  Harvey,  Licking 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.52 

7-  7 

Crushed  Limestone 

77 . 12 

7-  8 

Robert  Jameson,  Marshfield  .... 

Limestone 

98.23 

7-  9 

G.  A.  Pfeiffer,  Marshfield 

Limestone . . 

91 . 42 

7-10 

Fred  G.  Bergman,  Longtown.  . . 

Limestone  No.  1 

94.82 

7-11 

Fred  G.  Bergman,  Longtown.  . . . 

Limestone  No.  2 

96.47 

7-12 

Fred  G.  Bergman,  Longtown.  . . 

Limestone  No.  3 

99.69 

7-13 

Jacob  Grebing,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  1 

99.34 

7-14 

Limestone  No.  2 . . 

101.04 

7-15 

Jacob  Grebing,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  3 

100 . 85 

7-16 

Jacob  Grebing,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  4 

97.01 

7-17 

Richard  Petzold,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  1 

88.70 

7-18 

Richard  Petzold,  Altenburg 

Limestone  No.  2 

84.66 

7-75 

J.  E.  Edmisten,  Seneca 

Limestone  No.  1 . . 

96.81 

7-77 

John  F.  Geile,  Perryville 

Limestone 

93.21 

7-80 

C.  E.  Neff,  Fulton 

Limestone 

98.07 

7-81 

C.  E.  Neff,  Fulton 

Limestone 

96 . 76 

7-82 

C.  E.  Neff,  Fulton 

Limestone 

96.76 

7-83 

Cyrus  Holmes,  Greenville.  . . 

Limestone 

102 . 74 

7-84 

Fred  Shanley,  Fredericktown.  . 

Chats 

57.32 

7-85 

Geo.  M.  Bingenheimer,  Perryville 

Limestone 

95.20 

8-  1 

Stephen  Zahner,  Perryville . . 

I.imestone . . 

5.70 

8-  2 

E.  E.  Isaac,  Plattsburg 

Limestone , 

79.53 

8-  3 

T.  P.  Harrison,  McCredie . . 

Limestone 

97.26 

8-  4 

C.  J.  HanneKen,  Union  

Limestone  No.  1 

86.71 

8-  5 

C.  J.  Hanneken,  Union 

Limestone  No.  2 

94. 18 

8-  6 

C.  J.  Hanneken,  Union 

Limestone  No.  3 

92 . 69 

8-  8 

W.  E.  Day,  Cairo 

Limestone 

85 . 78 

8-  9 

J.  Koser,  Seymour 

Limestone  No.l 

96 . 20 

8-10 

J.  Koser,  Seymour 

Limestone  No.  2 

95.84 

8-11 

J.  Koser,  Seymour 

Limestone  No.  3 . . 

96.45 

8-12 

Bryan  Earl,  Jasper 

Light  Colored  Rock 

96.09 

8-13 

Bryan  Earl,  Jasper 

Dark  Colored  Rock 

95.62 

8-14 

W.  E.  Hendrick,  Anderson.  . . . 

Limestone 

102.66 

8-15 

H.  G.  Stevens,  Paris 

Limestone  A 

7.30 

8-16 

H.  G.  Stevens,  Paris 

Limestone  B 

95.50 

8-17 

H.  G.  Stevens,  Paris 

Limestone  1 

95 . 38 

8-18 

H.  G.  Stevens,  Paris 

Limestone  2 

6.91 

8-19 

O.  J.  Planks,  Garden  City 

Limestone  No.  1 

91.54 

8-20 

O.  J.  Planks,  Garden  City 

Limestone  No.  2 

72.18 

8-21 

J.  C.  Vantrump,  Burnham 

Limestone  (Vantrump) 

86 . 63 

8-22 

T.  P.  Modrell,  Pomona 

Limestone  (Modrell)  No.  1 ...  . 

80.24 

8-23 

T.  P.  Modrell,  Pomona 

Limestone  (Modrell)  No.  2 

82.04 

8-24 

Chas.  K.  Smith,  Hale 

Limestone 

93.52 

8-25 

W.  W.  Merritt,  New  London.  . . 

Limestone 

87.90 

8-26 

August  Schwede,  Wentzville.  . . . 

Limestone 

96.80 

8-27 

W.  W.  Langston,  Poplar  Bluff . 

Limestone 

93.67 

8-32 

A.  Erbes.  St.  Clair 

Limestone ■».... 

101.59 

8-34 

A.  B.  Mueller,  Pocahontas 

Limestone 

46.72 

8-35 

Jos.  C.  Englehart,  Pocahontas..  . 

Limestone 

97.09 

8-36 

Chas.  F.  Rauh,  Pocahontas 

Limestone 

96.36 

8-37 

W.  L.  Flanery,  Kennett 

Fossil  Rock 

70.81 

8-38 

Theodore  Eckenfeltz,  Perryville . 

Limestone 

78.62 

8-39 

Ernest  Koenning,  Farrer 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.04 

52  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  6. — Power  of  Limestone  and  Similar  Materials  to  Neutralize  Soil 

Acidity  (Continued) 

Expressed  in  Percentage  of  Calcium  Carbonate 


Lab. 

No. 

Sender 

Material 

Calcium 

carbonate 

equivalent 

8-40 

Ernest  Koenning,  Farrer 

Limestone  No.  2 

95.92 

8-41 

Wm.  Ernst,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  1 

89.62 

8-42 

Wm.  Ernst,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  2., 

97.53 

8-43 

Limestone  No.  1 

87.37 

8-44 

Adolf  Zoellner,  Perry ville 

Limestone  No.  2 

89.03 

8-45 

Thos.  M.  Finley,  Irondale 

Limestone  No.l 

104.51 

8-46 

Thos.  M.  Finley,  Irondale 

Limestone  No.  2 

102.51 

8-47 

Thos.  M.  Finley,  Irondale 

Limestone  No.  3 

98.07 

8-48 

Limestone  No.  4 

96.99 

8-49 

H.  E.  Bullerdick,  Desoto.  . 

Limestone 

93. 19 

8-50 

R.  F.  Shaffer,  Edina 

Limestone  No.  1 

92 . 45 

8-51 

R.  F.  Shaffer,  Edina 

Limestone  No.  2 

92.89 

8-52 

R.  F.  Shaffer,  Edina 

Limestone  No.  3 

37.84 

8-53 

R.  F.  Shaffer,  Edina 

Limestone  No.  4 

54.59 

8-54 

R.  F.  Shaffer,  Edina 

Limestone  No.  5 

89.03 

8-55 

R.  F.  Shaffer,  Edina  . 

Limestone  No.  6 

45.36 

8-56 

Limestone 

55.22 

8-57 

Limestone 

85.90 

8-58 

Limestone  No.  1 

87.03 

8-59 

Limestone  No.  2 

92.15 

8-60 

R.  T.  Hedrick,  Pleasant  Hill.  . . . 

Crushed  Limestone 

92.11 

8-61 

Del.  K.  Hall  Harrisonville 

Limestone  No.  1 

82.73 

8-62 

Del.  K.  Hall,  Harrisonville 

Limestone  No.  2 

87.03 

8-63 

Wm.  Hotop,  Perryville 

Limestone  No.  1 

92.40 

8-64 

Wm.  Hotop,  Perrvville 

Limestone  No.  2 

96.95 

8-65 

Wm.  Hotop,  Perryville  . . 

Limestone  No.  3 

95.38 

8-66 

Pearl  Luckey,  Seventy-six  . 

Limestone  No.l 

92 . 35 

8-67 

Pearl  Luckey,  Seventy-Six 

Limestone  No.  2 

91.96 

8-68 

Wm.  Bingenheimer,  Perryville.. . 

Limestone  No.l 

90.74 

8-69 

Wm.  Bingenheimer,  Perryville... 

Limestone  No.  2 

97.97 

8-70 

J.  W.  Pick  el,  Kirkwood 

Slack  Lime  Refuse 

98.10 

8-71 

G.  R.  Skinner,  Clayton 

Limestone 

93.52 

8-72 

G.  R.  Skinner,  Clayton 

Limestone 

92.74 

8-73 

G.  R.  Skinner,  Clavton 

Limestone 

92.84 

8-74 

G.  R.  Skinner.  Clayton  . 

Limestone 

83.60 

8-75 

G.  R Skinner  Clayton 

Limestone  

94.75 

8-76 

G R.  Skinner  Clayton 

Limestone  

93.76 

8-77 

Wm.  Nadler,  Wentzville 

Limestone  No.l 

94.99 

8-78 

Wm.  Nadler,  Wentzville 

Limestone  No.  2 

91.72 

8-79 

H.  J.  Bachmann.  Apple  Creek..  . 

Limestone 

90.25 

8-81 

John  Wansing,  Meta 

Limestone  No.  1 

99.68 

8-82 

John  Wansing,  Meta 

Limestone  No.  2 

92.01 

8-83 

John  Wansing,  Meta  . 

Limestone  No.  3 

93.08 

8-84 

Jesse  D.  Richeson  Potosi 

Limestone 

100.66 

8-85 

J.  F.  Woodyard,  Fortuna 

Crushed  Limestone 

73.15 

8-86 

James  Osborn,  Union 

Limestone  No.  1 

99.77 

8-87 

James  Osborn,  Union  

Limestone  No.  2 

93.66 

8-88 

August  Becker,  Augusta  ..... 

Limestone . 

92.04 

8-89 

Wm.  Schiesmeyer,  Hamburg.  . . . 

Limestone 

95  91 

8-90 

Meyer  Bros.,  Augusta 

Limestone  No.l 

91.81 

8-91 

Meyer  Bros.,  Augusta 

Limestone  No.  2 

93.33 

8-92 

.T  H Menscher  Wentzville 

Limestone  No.  1 . . 

91.91 

8-93 

•T.  H Menscher,  Wentzville  . 

Limestone  No.  2 

93.57 

8-94 

Wm.  Sudbrook,  Wentzville 

Limestone  No.  1 

93.92 

8-95 

Wm  Sudbrook  Wentzville 

Limestone  No.  2 . . 

93.47 

8-96 

Wm.  Kohler,  Hamburg 

Limestone 

94.01 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


53 


Table  6. — Power  of  Limestone  and  Similar  Materials  to  Neutralize  Soil 

Acidity  (Continued) 

Expressed  in  Percentage  of  Calcium  Carbonate 


Lab. 

No. 

Sender 

Material 

Calcium 

carbonate 

equivalent 

8-97 

W.  A.  Stahlschmidt,  Gilmore. . . . 

Limestone  No.  1 

94.30 

8-98 

W.  A.  Stahlschmidt,  Gilmore. . . . 

Limestone  No.  2 

92.89 

8-99 

W.  A.  Stahlschmidt,  Gilmore..  . . 

Limestone  No.  3 

92.99 

8-100 

W.  A.  Stahlschmidt,  Gilmore..  . . 

Limestone  No.  4 

94.01 

8-182 

Richard  Meyer,  Defiance 

Limestone 

91.32 

8-183 

Otto  Yiefhaus,  Augusta 

Limestone 

89.47 

8-184 

Thos.  F.  Moore,  Perry ville 

Limestone 

72.08 

8-185 

H.  D.  Farrer,  Menfro 

Crushed  Limestone 

97.48 

8-186 

Theo.  Eckenfeltz,  Perryville .... 

Limestone  No.  1 

84.97 

8-187 

Theo.  Eckenfeltz,  Perryville.  . . . 

Limestone  No.  4 

93.18 

8-188 

Theo.  Eckenfeltz,  Perryville .... 

Limestone  No.  6 

93 . 23 

8-189 

Fritz  Bergman,  Perryville 

Limestone 

95  13' 

8-190 

N.  J.  Rudisale,  Biehle 

Limestone 

80 . 92 

8-191 

S.  A.  Price,  Seventy-six 

Limestone  No.  1 

93 . 86 

8-192 

S.  A.  Price,  Seventy-six 

Limestone  No.  2 

95 . 96 

8-193 

Auzi  Hoffman,  Perryville 

Ground  Limestone 

86 . 73 

8-194 

John  Dunker,  Perryville 

Limestone 

87.03' 

9-  1 

St.  Clair  Emmons,  Molino 

Limestone 

93.81 

9-  2 

T.  H.  Brock,  Sedalia 

Crushed  Limestone 

84 . 78 

9-  3 

E.  M.  Evans,  Cairo 

Limestone 

89  37 

9-  4 

John  Wilson,  New  London 

Limestone 

94  45 

9-  5 

G.  R.  Skinner,  Clayton 

Limestone 

92.31 

9-  6 

G.  R.  Skinner,  Clayton  

Limestone 

95  43" 

9-  7 

James  O’Brien,  Leasburg 

Limestone  No.  1 

92.70 

9-  8 

James  O’Brien,  Leasburg 

Limestone  No.  2 

93 . 72 

9-  9 

James  O’Brien,  Leasburg 

Limestone  No.  3 

96.49 

9-10 

Henry  Baumgartner,  Millersburg 

Crushed  Limestone 

82.83- 

9-11 

McGuire  & Son,  Conway 

Limestone 

89 . 71 

9-13 

Jos.  Sauer,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.l 

99 . 43 

9-14 

Jos.  Sauer,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  2 

94  65 

9-15 

Jos.  Sauer,  Biehle 

Limestone  No.  3 

98 . 98 

9-16 

Gus  Sauer,  Biehle 

Limestone 

82 . 93 

9-17 

J.  F.  Woodyard,  Fortuna 

Limestone  No.  1 

98.90 

9-18 

J.  F.  Woodyard,  Fortuna 

Limestone  No.  2 

0.0 

9-19 

J.  F.  Woodyard,  Fortuna 

Limestone  No.  3 

0.0 

9-20 

J.  F.  Woodyard,  Fortuna 

Limestone  No.  4 

92.31 

9-25 

W.  A.  Pasley,  Shamrock  

Limestone  No.l 

88 . 89' 

9-26 

W.  A.  Pasley,  Shamrock  

Limestone  No.  2 

94 . 45 

9-27 

W.  A.  Pasley,  Shamrock 

Limestone  No.  3 

48.58 

9-28 

Wells  Bros.,  Shamrock 

Limestone 

94 . 55 

9-31 

John  Schell,  Lutes  ville 

Limestone 

91.62 

9-32 

J.  F.  Woodyard,  Fortuna 

Limestone 

97 . 63 

9-33 

F.  J.  Dames,  O’Fallon 

Limestone 

89.86 

9-34 

Y.  H.  Kern,  Trenton 

Limestone  (crushed) 

86.49 

9-38 

Wm.  Bess,  Yount 

Limestone  III 

88.39 

9-39 

Marion  Lee,  Yount 

Limestone  IV 

88.98 

9-40 

Oscar  Unverferth,  Perryville.  . . . 

Limestone  I 

91.18 

9-41 

Anton  Zoellner,  Biehle 

Limestone  I 

82 . 53 

9-42 

Anton  Zoellner,  Biehle 

Limestone  IV 

89.91 

9-49 

R.  Petzold,  Altenburg  

Limestone 

37 . 50 

9-50 

Aug.  Hermann,  Uniontown 

Limestone 

95.06 

9-51 

Aug.  Cissell,  Perryville  . . 

Limestone 

95 . 24 

9-52 

A.  Raut,  Perryville 

Clay  Like  Rock 

0 .0 

9-54 

C.  W.  McClellan,  Callaway 

Crushed  Limestone 

89.65 

9-55 

Roy  I.  Coplan,  Farmington 

Limestone 

101.20 

9-56 

Oscar  Unverferth,  Perryville.  . . . 

Limestone  No.l 

84.54  1 

54  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  6. — Power  of  Limestone  and  Similar  Materials  to  Neutralize  Soil 

Acidity  (Continued) 


Expressed  in  Percentage  of  Calcium  Carbonate 


Lab. 

No. 

Sender 

Material 

Calcium 

carbonate 

equivalent 

9-57 

Oscar  Unverferth,  PerryvUle.  . . . 

Limestone  No.  2 

. 96.22 

9-62 

Ammann  Mining  Co.,  Jonesburg 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.78 

9-63 

Ammann  Mining  Co.,  Jonesburg 

Limestone  No.  2 

97.40 

9-64 

Ammann  Mining  Co.,  Jonesburg 

Limestone  No.  3 

89.09 

9-65 

Wm.  Nadler,  Wentzville 

Foundation  Rock  

97.31 

9-66 

Joseph  Hecht,  Union  town 

Limestone  No.  1 

97. 14 

9-67 

Joseph  Hecht,  Uniontown 

Limestone  No.  2 

96.84 

9-68 

Joseph  Hecht,  Uniontown 

Limestone  No.  3 

98.25 

10-  1 

Sorrel  Riechmann,  Reads ville  . . . 

Limestone  No.O 

99.18 

10-  2 

Sorrel  Riechmann,  Readsville  . . . 

Limestone  No.  1 

98.59 

10-  3 

Sorrel  Riechmann,  Readsville  . . . 

Limestone  No.  2 

90.50 

10-  4 

Sorrel  Riechmann,  Readsville . . . 

Limestone  No.  3 

98.76 

10-  5 

Martin  Sifford,  Puxico 

Limestone 

86.41 

10-  6 

Harry  Wood,  New  London 

Limestone 

96.70 

10-  9 

George  Hampton,  Monroe  City. . 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.31 

10-10 

George  Hampton,  Monroe  City. . 

Limestone  No.  2 

9.8.01 

10-11 

James  Lee,  Yount 

Limestone  No.l 

99.39 

10-12 

Limestone  No.  2 

107.07 

10-14 

Limestone  No.  4 

101 .41 

10-15 

Limestone  No.  5 

106.08 

10-16 

James  Lee,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  6 

104. 13 

10-17 

Ernest  Yamnitz,  Yount 

Limestone 

86.53 

10-18 

Ben  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  1 

105.31- 

10-19 

Ben  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  2 

101.03 

10-20 

James  Yount,  Yount 

Limestone  No.l 

104.22 

10-21 

E.  Yamnitz,  Yount 

Limestone 

93.95 

10-22 

Elf  Yount,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.32 

10-23 

Eff  Yount,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  2 

101 . 84 

10-24 

Eff  Yount,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  3 

103 . 63 

10-25 

Joe  Neece,  Yount 

Limestone  No.l  

100.70 

10-26 

Joe  Neece,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  2 

92.38 

10-27 

Joe  Neece,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  3 

89.50 

10-28 

Ernest  Yamnitz,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  1 

100.31 

10-29 

Ernest  Yamnitz,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.44 

10-30 

Ernest  Yamnitz,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  3 

85.51 

10-31 

Frank  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  1 (from  Creek).. . 

106.99 

10-32 

Frank  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  2 (from  Creek)... 

104 . 97 

10-33 

Frank  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  3 (from  Creek).. . 

104.30 

10-34 

Frame  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  1 

106.12 

10-35 

Frame  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  2 

105.07 

10-36 

Frank  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  3 

107.37 

10-37 

Frank  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  4 

106.37 

10-38 

Frank  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  5 

106.66 

10-39 

Frank  Clifton,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  6 

106.22 

10-40 

Sam  Neece,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  1 

97.39 

10-41 

Sam  Neece,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  2 

100.02 

10-42 

Sam  Neece,  Yount 

Limestone  No.  3 

101.94 

11-1 

Boone  Omer,  Center 

Limestone  No.l  

101.22 

11-2 

Boone  Omer,  Center 

Limestone  No.  2 

98.92 

11-3 

Boone  Omer,  Center 

Limestone  No.  3 

96.66 

11-  4 

Beaven  Bros.,  Hams  Prairie.  . . . 

Limestone 

7.19 

11-6 

Louis  Felin,  Marshfield 

Limestone  No.  1 

107.52 

11-7 

Louis  Felin,  Marshfield 

Limestone  No.  2 

100.74 

11-8 

Louis  Felin,  Marshfield 

Limestone  No.  3 

94.60 

11-  9 

Louis  Felin,  Marshfield 

Limestone  No.  4 

103.39 

12-44 

F.  J.  Schultz,  Center 1 

L Limestone 

93.83 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


55 


Table  6. — Power  of  Limestone  and  Similar  Materials  to  Neutralize  Soil 

Acidity  (Continued) 

Expressed  in  Percentage  of  Calcium  Carbonate 


Lab. 

No. 

Sender 

Material 

Calcium 

carbonate 

equivalent 

12-45 

J.  S.  Ferguson,  Mine  La  Motte. . 

Limestone  No.  1 

104.45 

12-46 

J.  S.  Ferguson,  Mine  La  Motte. . 

Limestone  No.  2 

105.60 

12-47 

Ed  Klein,  Farmington 

Limestone  No.  3 

103 . 29 

12-48 

C.  J.  Westmeyer,  Farmington. . . 

Limestone  No.  4 

92.96 

12-49 

James  McCormick,  Farmington . 

Limestone  No.  5 . . 

85.80 

56  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 


The  American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co. 
(Empire  Carbon  Works), 

East  St.  Louis,  111. 

The  Amer.  Agr.  Chem.  Co.  Brands 

Fruit  Growers  Special 

Peat  Soil  Special 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

Pure  Raw  Bone 

“Boar’s  Head”  Brands 

16%  Phosphate 

Faultless  Grain  Grower 

Good  as  Bone 

Ammonia  ted  Phosphate 

Seeding  Down  Guano 

Harvest  King 

World  of  Good  Superphosphate 

Ammoniated  Bone  and  Potash 

World  of  Good  Com  and  Wheat  Grower  .... 

Sandy  Soil  Grain  Grower 

Bone  Meal 

“Bradley”  Brands 

High  Grade  Phosphate 

All  But  Straw 

Binflller 

Bradley’s  Special 

Com  and  Wheat  Phosphate 

Niagara  Phosphate 

B.  D.  Sea  Fowl  Guano 

Wheat  and  Clover  Fertilizer 

Best  Grain  Grower 

Sure  Winner 

Bone  Meal 

Empire  Carbon  Works  Brands 

16%  Phosphate 

Phosphate  and  Potash 

Steam  Bone  Substitute 

Nitrophos 

Wheat  and  Clover  Grower 

Crop  Grower 

Bone  Black  Fertilizer 

Farmers  Favorite 

Middle  West  Grain  Grower 

Potato  and  Tobacco  Fertilizer 

Bone  Meal 

“Horseshoe”  Brands 

Economy  Phosphate 

Grain  Maker 

Soil  Builder 

War  Brand 


Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P*Oi) 

Potash 

(KsO) 

Total 

Avail- 

able 

Insol- 

uble 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

7.40 

7.00 

0.50 

10.00 

0.50 

8.00 

15.00 

3.29 

20.00 

16.00 

0.50 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1 . 65 

10.00 

0.50 

1 . 65 

12.00 

0.50 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

3.00 

1.65 

8.00 

0.50 

2.00 

0.82 

10.00 

0.50 

1 00 

1.65 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1.65 

8.00 

0.50 

5.00 

1.65 

27.00 

16.00 

0.50 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1.65 

10.00 

0.50 

1.65 

12.00 

0.50 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

3.00 

1 . 65 

8.00 

0.50 

2.00 

0.82 

10.00 

0.50 

1.00 

1 65 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1 . 65 

8.00 

0.50 

5.00 

1.65 

27.00 

16.00 

0.50 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1 .65 

10.00 

0.50 

1 .65 

12.00 

0.50 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

0.82 

S.00 

0.50 

3.00 

1 . 65 

8 00 

0.50 

2.00 

0.82 

10.00 

0.50 

1.00 

1 . 65 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1 . 65 

8.00 

0.50 

5.00 

1 . 65 

27.00 

16.00 

I 0.50 

12.00 

! 0.50 

2.00 

1 . 65 

10  00 

0 50 



1 . 65 



12.00 

0.50 

1 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


57 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 


Reliable  Wheat  Grower 

Animal  Bone  Manure  and  Potash 

National  Bone  Dust 

Acidulated  Bone  and  Potash 

Pioneer  Grain  Grower 

Bone  Meal 

Horseshoe  Fertilizer 

Arkansas  Fertilizer  Co. 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas. 

White  Diamond  Brands 

Special  Acid  Phosphate 

Blood,  Bone  and  Potash 

Early  Potato  and  Truck,  W.  P 

Early  Potato  and  Truck 

Ammoniated  Bone  Superphosphate 

Corn  Grower,  without  Potash 

Arkansas  Standard 

Blood  and  Bone  Fertilizer 

Queen  of  the  South 

Southern  Queen 

Southern  Standard 

Southern  Standard,  without  Potash 

20th  Century 

“20th  Century  1916” ...... 

Vegetable  Fertilizer 

Economy 

Number  39 

* ‘ Gro-Fast  ’ ’ Fertilizer 

New  South 

Kali  Superphosphate 

Commonwealth  Wheat  Grower 

Commonwealth  Corn  Grower 

Superphosphate,  with  Potash 

Superphosphate,  with  Ammonia 

Early  Harvest 

Special  Wheat  Grower  “ B ” 

Special  Raw  Bone  and  Potash 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works, 

Chicago,  111. 

“Big  Crop”  Brands 

12-2  Fertilizer 

12-4  Fertilizer 

2-12-2  Fertilizer 

2-10-4  Fertilizer 

2-12  Fertilizer 

16%  Acid  Phosphate 

1-12-1  Fertilizer 

Bone  Meal 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

Half  Bone  Meal  and  Half  Acid  Phosphate 


Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O6) 

Potash 

(K20) 

Total 

Avail- 

able 

Insol- 

uble 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

3.00 

1.65 

8.00 

0.50 

2.00 

0.82 

10.00 

0.50 

1.00 

1.65 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1.65 

27.00 

1.65 

8.00 

0.50 

5.00 

0.00 

16.00 

0 00 

2.00 

12.00 

1 50 

2.50 

12.00 

0 00 

2.50 

8.00 

4 00 

1.65 

9.00 

2 00 

1.65 

11  00 

0 00 

1.65 

10.00 

1 00 

1.50 

11.00 

1 50 

1.65 

12.00 

0 00 

1.65 

10.00 

2 00 

1.65 

10.00 

1 50 

1.65 

11.50 

0 00 

1 . 65 

9.00 

• 

2 00 

1.65 

10.60 

0 40 

2.00 

7.50 

3 .00 

0.82 

10.00 

2 00 

0.82 

10.00 

1 00 

1.65 

8.00 

2 . 00 

1.65 

10.00 

0 00 

0.00 

11.00 

3 00 

0.82 

8.00 

1 00 

0.82 

8.00 

2 00 

0.00 

10.00 

2 00 

0.82 

12.00 

0 00 

1.65 

10.50 

0 50 

1.00 

7.00 

1 00 

1.65 

18.00 

1 00 

12.00 

0 . 50 

2.00 

12.00 

0 . 50 

4 00 

1.65 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1.65 

10.00 

0.50 

4.00 

1.65 

12.00 

0.50 

16.00 

0 . 50 

0.82 

12.00 

0.50 

1.00 

2.47 

24.00 

3.71 

22.00 

1.23 

20.00 

11.00 

9.00 

58  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


F ertilizer 


Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

Nitro-  Potash 

gen  (K;0) 

Total  Avail-  Insol- 
able  uble 


Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Armour  Brands 

1-10  Fertilizer  

0.82 

10.00 

0.50 

0.82 

12.00 

0.50 

Wheat.  Com  and  Oats  Special 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

New  Record  Brand 

0.82 

10.00 

0.50 

1.00 

1 . 60 

10.00 

0.50 

Special  Grain  Grower 

1 . 60 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

1 . 65 

8.00 

0.50 

2.00 

1.23 

1.50 

0.50 

1.00 

Tuscarora  Brands 

12-2  Fertilizer 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

12-4  Fertilizer 

12.00 

0.50 

4.00 

2-12-*?  Fertilizer 

1 . 65 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

2-10-4  Fertilizer 

1 . 65 

10.00 

0.50 

4.00 

2-12  Fertilizer 

1 . 65 

12.00 

0.50 

14.00 

0.50 

1 6 Arid  Phosnhate 

16.00 

0.50 

1-12-1  Fertilizer 

0.82 

1 ..... 

12.00 

0.50 

1.00 

Bone  Meal  

2.47 

24.00 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

3 . 71 

22.00 

Half  Bone  Meal  and  Half  Add  Phosphate  ... 

1.23 

20.00 

11.00 

9.00 

1-10  Fertilizer 

0.82 

10.00 

0.50 

New  Ammoniated  Phosphate 

0.82 

12.00 

0.50 

Wheat.  Com  and  Oats  Spedal 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

Ammoniated  Phosphate 

1 . 65 

10.00 

0.50 

New  Standard 

1 . 65 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

The  Barrett  Company, 

New  York.  N.  Y. 

Arcadian  Sulphate  of  Ammonia 

20.75 

The  Bone  and  Potash  Fertilizer  Co. 

Carthage.  Mo. 

Shin  Bone  Brands 

Complete  Com  Cotton  and  Track  Grower.  . . 

0.92 

9.00 

1.00 

1.25 

Shin  Bone  Brand  Special  Wheat  Grower  .... 

0.92 

9.00 

1.00 

1.25 

Shin  Bone  Brand  Pure  Bone  Meal 

1 . 64 

20.00 

Shin  Bone  Brand  Pulverized  Sheep  Guano. . . 

1.64 

3.00 

1.00 



1.00 

Qhin  'Rnnp  BranH  ^nAPial  Pnpp  Bnn p "\fpol 

0.82 

32.00 

011 1 ii  jjuuc  u 1 aiiu . cycviai  a ui  c uuiiu  _ucai,  . . 

Calumet  Fertilizer  Co., 



New  Albany,  Ind. 

Calumet  Brands 

High  Grade  Manure 

1.23  I 

10.00 

9.00 

1.00 

1.00 

Missouri  Wheat  Grower 

0.61  1 

9.50 

8.50  I 

1.00 

0.50 

Com  and  Wheat  Spedal 

1.64  1 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Two  Twelve  Two 

1.64 

13.00 

12.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Grain  Grower  

1.64 

9.00  1 

8.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Spedal  Crop  Grower 

0.41 

13.00 

12.00 

1.00 

Onion  and  Potato  Grower 

1.64 

9 00 

8.00 

1.00 

8.00 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920  59 

Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 


High  Grade  Tobacco  and  Truck  Grower 

Extra  Ammoniated  Bone  Phosphate 

Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash  Mixture 

Phosphate  and  Potash 

Half  Eight  Three 

Onion  and  Tobacco  Grower 

Ten  Four 

Twelve  Two 

Half  Ten  Two 

Half  Thirteen  One 

Half  Seven  Ten 

Ten  Ten  Hummer 

Acid  Phosphate  14% 

Acid  Phosphate  16% 

Bone  Meal  Mixture  with  Phosphate 

Bone  Meal  Tankage  and  Potash 

Extra  Ammoniated  Bone  Meal 

Special  Pure  Bone  Meal 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

Cochrane  Packing  Co., 

Kansas  City,  Kansas 

Cochrane’s  Brands 

Pulverized  Sheep  Manure 

Top  Dressing 

Regular  Wheat  Fertilizer 

Vegetable  Grower 

Wheat  Producer 

Corn  and  Oat  Grower 

Special  Wheat  Grower 

Champion  Grain  Grower 

Superphosphate  . . . . 

Super  Bone  Meal 

Superfine  Bone  Flour 

Commercial  Fertilizer  Co., 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas 

Acid  Phosphate 

Blood,  Bone  and  Potash 

Early  Potato  and  Truck,  without  Potash.  . . . 

Early  Potato  and  Truck 

Arkahoma  Special 

Four  States  Standard 

Crop  Getter 

Special  Cotton  Grower 

Arkansas  Complete 

All-Crop  Fertilizer 

Economy 

Farmer’s  Friend 

Bove-All  Cotton  Grower 

Square  Deal  Fertilizer 

Phospho-Potash 


Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

Potash 

(K2O) 

Total 

Avail- 

able 

Insol- 

uble 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

2.46 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

4.00 

1.64 

13.00 

12.00 

1.00 

0.41 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

1.00 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

2.00 

0.41 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

3.00 

0.82 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

3.00 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

4.00 

13.00 

12.00 

1.00 

2.00 

0.41 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

2.00 

0.41 

15.50 

13.00 

2.50 

1.00 

0.41 

8.00 

7.00 

1.00 

10.00 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

10.00 

15.00 

14.00 

1 . 00 

17.00 

16.00 

1 . 00 

1.23 

20.00 

12.00 

8.00 

1.23 

16.00 

(BO 

NE) 

1.00 

2.00 

28.00 

(BO 

NE) 

0.82 

30.00 

(BO 

NE) 

3.70 

20.00 

(BO 

NE) 

2.05 

2.00 

1 00 

0.82 

10.00 

0 . 00 

0.82 

10.00 

0 00 

0.82 

8.00 

1 . 00 

0.82 

8.00 

1 . 00 

0.82 

10.00 

1 00 

0.82 

10.00 

1 . 00 

1.65 

10.00 

1 . 00 

0.82 

15.00 

1 . 00 

1.65 

20.00 

0 . 00 

0.00 

26.00 

0 00 

0.00 

16.00 

0 . 00 

2.00 

12.00 

1 . 50 

2.50 

12  00 

0 . 00 

2.50 

8.00 

4 . 00 

1 . 65 

9.00 

2.00 

1.65 

11.00 

0 . 00 

1 . 65 

12.00 

0 . 00 

1 .65 

10.00 

2 . 00 

1 .65 

10.00 

1 . 50 

1 .65 

9.00 

2 . 00 

0.82 

10.00 

2.00 

0.82 

10.00 

1 .00 

1 . 65 

8.00 

2.00 

0.82 

8.00 

1 . 00 

0.00 

10.00 

2.00 

60  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  ani> 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

Nitro- 

Potash 

Fertilizer 

gen 

(K20) 

Total 

Avail- 

Insol- 

able 

uble 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Early  Harvest 

1.65 

10.50 

0 . 50 

'Special  Wheat  Grower  “B” 

1.00 

7.00 

1 .00 

Raw  Bone  and  Potash 

1.65 

18.00 

1.00 

The  Cudahy  Packing  Co. 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Cudahy’s  Blue  Ribbon  Fertilizer  (Steamed 

Bone  Meal) 

2.47 

24.00 

Cudahy’s  Blue  Ribbon  Fertilizer  (16%  Acid 

Phosphate) 

0.00 

16.00 

0.00 

Cudahy’s  Blue  Ribbon  Half  and  Half  Fertil- 

izer,  made  of  50%  Bone  Meal  and  50% 

Acid  Phosphate 

1.23 

20.00 

13.00 

0.00 

Darling  & Co., 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Darling’s  Farmer’s  Favorite.. . . 

2.40 

8.00 

2.00 

4.00 

Darling’s  Chicago  Brand 

1.60 

8.00 

2.00 

2.00 

Darling’s  Big  Harvest 

1.60 

12.00 

2.00 

2.00 

Darling’s  Sure  Winner 

0.80 

8.00 

2.00 

3.00 

Darling’s  Grain  Grower ' 

0.80 

9.00 

2.00 

1.00 

Darling’s  General  Crop 

1.60 

12.00 

2.00 

Darling’s  Little  Giant 

0.80 

10. CO 

2.00 

Darling’s  Big  Potash 

1.00 

8.00 

2.00 

10.00 

Darling’s  Ten  Five 

10.00 

5.00 

Darling’s  Acme  Brand 

12.00 

2.00 

Darling’s  16%  Acid  Phosphate  . . 

16.00 

Darling’s  Bone  and  Acid  Phosphate  Half  and 

Half 

0.80 

12.00 

11.00 



Darling’s  Pure  Ground  Bone.  . 

1.80 

28.00 

Darling’s  Ground  Raw  Bone 

3.70 

22.00 

Darling’s  Blood  and  Bone 

4.94 

12.00 

Darling’s  Nitrate  of  Soda  . 

14.80 

Darling’s  Pulverized  Sheep  Manure 

1.85 

1.00 

1 .00 

Douglass  Fertilizer  Co., 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas 

“4-Brand” 

Acid  Phosphate  

0.00 

16.00 

0.00 

Blood,  Bone  and  Potash  . . 

2.00 

12.00 

1.50 

Early  Potato  and  Truck,  without  Potash  . . 

2.50 

12.00 

0.00 

Early  Potato  and  Truck 

2.50 

8.00 

4.00 

Arkahoma  Special 

1.65 

9.00 

2.00 

Douglass  Choice 

1.65 

11.00 

0.00 

Douglass  Complete  . . 

1 . 65 

10.00 

1 .00 

Douglass  Preferred  . . 

1.65 

12.00 

0.00 

Douglass  Superior  Fertilizer. . . 

1.65 

10.00 

2.00 

4-Brand  Prize  Winner 

1.65 

9.00 

2.00 

“ Douglass  Special  Cotton  Grower  1916”  .... 

1.65 

10.60 

0.40 

Douglass  Vegetable  Fertilizer. . . 

2.00 

7.50 

3.00 

Economy 

0.82 

10.00 

2.00 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


61 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 

Nitro- 

gen 

Phosph< 

Total 

Dric  Acid 

Avail- 

able 

l (P2O5) 

Insol- 

uble 

Potash 

(K20) 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

0.82 

10.00 

1 .00 

1.65 

8.00 

2.00 

1.65 

10.00 

0.00 

4-Brand  Phosphate  and  Potash 

0.00 

11.00 

3.00 

4-Brand  Wheat  Grower 

0.82 

8.00 

1 .00 

4-Brand  Corn  Grower 

0.82 

8.00 

2.00 

4-Brand  Phospho-Potash 

0.00 

10.00 

2.00 

Early  Harvest 

1.65 

10.50 

0.50 

Special  Wheat  Grower  “B” 

1.00 

7.00 

1 .00 

4-Brand  Raw  Bone  and  Potash . 

1.65 

18.00 

1 .00 

The  Empire  Guano  Company, 

Nashville,  Tennessee 

Wheat,  Oat  and  Corn  Grower 

0.82 

17.00 

7.00 

1.00 

Blood  Bone  and  Potash 

1.65 

13.00 

8.00 

2.00 

Missouri  Premium  Guano 

0.41 

15.00 

8.00 

4.00 

Prize  Grain  Grower 

1.65 

15.00 

12.00 

2.00 

Missouri  Grain  Grower 

0.41 

15.00 

12.00 

1.00 

Red  Banner  Grain  Special 

0.82 

15.00 

12.00 

1 .00 

High  Grade  Grain  Special 

0.82 

17.00 

16.00 

0.00 

Clover  and  Wheat  Special 

0.82 

15.00 

12.00 

2.00 

Red  Banner  Favorite 

1.65 

16.00 

12.00 

0.00 

Bone  and  Potash 

0.00 

15.00 

10.00 

2.00 

High  Grade  Potash  Special 

0.00 

16.00 

14.00 

2.00 

Climax  Phosphate 

0.00 

18.00 

16.00 

0.00 

Bone  Mixture 

0.82 

20.00 

13  00 

0.00 

The  Excell  Laboratories, 

Chicago,  Illinois 

“Zenkes  New  Plant  Life” 

2.80 

4.80 

2.15 

0.05 

1.08 

‘‘Zenkes  New  Plant  Life”  (Domestic  Strength) 

1.40 

2.40 

1.07 

0.02 

0 . 54 

Falls  City  Fertilizer  Company, 

New  Albany,  Ind. 

Falls  City  Brands 

High  Grade  Manure 

1.23 

10.00 

9.00 

1.00 

1.00 

Missouri  Wheat  Grower 

0.61 

9.50 

8.50 

1.00 

0.50 

Corn  and  Wheat  Special 

1.64 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Two  Twelve  Two 

1.64 

13.00 

12  00 

1.00 

2.00 

Grain  Grower 

1.64 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Onion  and  Potato  Grower 

1.64 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

8.00 

High  Grade  Tobacco  and  Truck  Grower 

2.46 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

4.00 

Special  Crop  Grower 

0 . 41 

13 . 00 

12 . 00 

1 . 00 

Extra  Ammoniated  Bone  Phosphate  . 

1 . 64 

13 . 00 

12 . 00 

1 . 00 

Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash  Mixture 

0.41 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

1.00 

Phosphate  and  Potash 

11.00 

10  00 

1 . 00 

2.00 

Half  Eight  Three 

0.41 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

3.00 

Onion  and  Tobacco  Grower 

0.82 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

3.00 

Ten  Four 

11.00 

10 . 00 

1 .00 

4.00 

Twelve  Two 

13.00 

12 . 00 

1 . 00 

2.00 

Half  Ten  Two 

0.41 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Half  Thirteen  One 

0.41 

15.50 

13.00 

2.50 

1.00 

62  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 

Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P;05) 

Potash 

(OsK) 

Total  Avail- 
able 

Insol- 

uble 

Per  cent 

Percent  Percent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Half  Seven  Ten 

0.41 

8.00  7.00 

1.00 

10.00 

11.00  10.00 

1.00 

10.00 

Acid  Phosphate  14 % 

15.00  14.00 

1.00 

Acid  Phosphate  16^ 

17.00  16.00 

1.00 

Bone  Meal  Mixture  with  Phosphate 

1.23 

20.00  12.  CO 

8.00 

Bone  Meal  Tankage  and  Potash 

1.23 

16.00  (BO 

NE) 

1.00 

2.00 

28.00  BO 

NE) 

Special  Pure  Bone  Meal 

0.82 

30.00  (BO 

NE) 



3.70 

20.00  (BO 

NE) 

The  Fertile  Chemical  Co., 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Xitro-Fertile  

2.00 

3 00 

3.00 

3.00 

The  Flower  City  Plant  Food  Co.,  Inc., 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Walker's  Excelsior  Plant  Food 

5.00 

7 00 

3.00 

Archias’  Fairv  Brand  (Plant  Food) 

3.00 

7 00 

2.00 

Japanese  Fern  and  Palm  Food 

5.00 

6 00 

1.00 

Gate  City  Fertilizer  Co., 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas 

Red  Ball  Brands 

Extra  Acid  Phosphate 

0.00 

16  00 

0.00 

Blood  Bone  and  Potash 

2.00 

12  00 

1.50 

Early  Potato  and  Truck,  without  Potash.  . . . 

2.50 

12  00 

0.00 

Earlv  Potato  and  Truck 

2.50 

8 CO 

4 00 

Arkahoma  Special  

1.65 

9 00 

2.00 

Four  States  Standard  

1.65 

11  00 

0 00 

Complete  Fertilizer 

1 . 65 

10  00 

1.00 

Blood  and  Bone 

1.50 

11  00 

1.50 

Ammonia  ted  Superphosphate 

1 . 65 

12  00 

0.00 

Diversified  Croppers’ 

1 . 65 

10.00 

2.00 

Cotton  Grower  

1 . 65 

9 . 00  ! 

2.00 

“Cotton  Grower  1916” 

1 . 65 

10  60 

0.40 

Old  Time  Vegetable 

2.00 

7 50 

3.00 

Economy  

0.82 

10.00 

2.00 

Acidulated  Bone  Fertilizer 

0.82 

10.00 

1.00 

Old  Reliable  Fertilizer 

1.65 

8 00 

2.00 

Soluble  Bone  Fertilizer 

1.65 

10  00 

0.00 

Phosphate  and  Potash 

0.00 

11.00 

3.00 

Arkmo  Wheat  Grower 

0.82 

8.00 

1 CO 

Arkmo  Corn  Grower  

0.82 

8.00 

2.00 

Phospho-Potash  

0.00 

10.00 

2.00 

Early  Harvest  

1 . 65 

10.50  1 

0 50 

Special  Wheat  Grower  “ B ” 

1.00 

7.00 

1 00 

Raw  Bone  and  Potash 

1.65 

18.00  

1.00 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


63 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 

Nitro- 

gen 

Phosph 

Total 

oric  Aci< 

Avail- 

able 

1 (PsO*.) 

Insol- 

uble 

Potash 

(K«0) 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Interstate  Fertilizer  Co., 

Webb  City,  Mo. 

Interstate  Brands 

(1)  Grain  and  Cotton  Special  2-10-2 

1.65 

10.00 

0.50 

2.00 

(2)  2-8-2 

1 . 65 

8.00 

0.50 

2.00 

(3)  2-10-0.50 

1.65* 

10.00 

0.50 

0.50 

(4)  1-8-1  

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

(5)  1-12-1  

0.82 

12.00 

0.50 

1.00 

(6)  1-12-0.50  

0.82 

12.00 

0.50 

0.50 

(7)  1-10-0  

0.82 

10 . 00 

0.50 

0.00 

(8)  1-7-0.50 

0.82 

7.00 

0.50 

0.50 

<10)  Raw  Bone  Meal  

3 . 70 

22.00 

<11)  Steamed  Bone  Meal  1-29.  . 

0.82 

29.00 

(12)  0.50-16-0.50 

0.41 

16.00 

0.50 

0.50 

<13)  0.50-14-0.50 

0 . 41 

14 . 00 

0.50 

0.50 

<14)  2-12-2 

1 . 65 

12.00 

0 . 50 

2.00 

(15)  2-12-0.50 

1 . 65 

12.00 

0 . 50 

0.50 

(19)  Sheep  Manure  Mixture  1-9-1 

0.82 

9.00 

0.50 

1.00 

(22)  0.50-14-2 

0.41 

14.00 

0.50 

2.00 

The  Jacksonville  Reduction  Co., 

Jacksonville,  Illinois 

Purity  Bone  Meal  Fertilizer 

3.60 

18.00 

Meridian  Fertilizer  Factory, 

Shreveport,  Louisiana 

Rasy  Driller  Phosphate 

16.00 

Meridian  Farm  Special 

1.65 

10.00 

Meridian  Grain  Grower 

1 . 65 

10.00 

2.00 

Meridian  Wheat  Grower 

1 .65 

12.00 

Meridian  Western  Special 

1 . 65 

12.00 

1.00 

Meridian  Great  Western 

1.65 

12.00 

2.00 

Meridian  Wheat  Special 

0.82 

12.00 

1.00 

Meridian  Grain  Special 

1.65 

8.00 

2.00 

Meridian  Ammoniated  Phosphate.  . . 

0.82 

10.00 

Meridian  Missouri  Special 

0.82 

8.00 

1.00 

Meridian  Bone  Meal 

2.47 

24.00 

Meridian  Special  Formula 

0.82 

10.00 

1.00 

Meridian  Potash  Acid 

15.00 

2.00 

Meridian  Phosphate  and  Potash 

15.00 

3.00 

Mid-West  Fertilizer  Material  Co., 

Carthage,  Mo. 

Back  Bone  Brands 

Complete  Corn,  Oats  and  Cotton  Grower. . . . 

0.93 

9.25 

1.00 

1.20 

Special  Wheat  Grower 

0.93 

9.25 

1.00 

1.20 

Pure  Bone  Meal 

1 .23 

22.50 

•Concentrated  Sheep  Manure 

1.64 

4.00 

2.00 

2.00 

64  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 

Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 

Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

(P2O5) 

Potash 

(K20) 

Total 

Avail- 

able 

Insol- 

uble 

Morris  & Company, 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Chicago,  Illinois 

3.70 

24.00 

Spl.  Big  One — Phos.  Tkg.  and  Potash 

1.65 

9.00 

2.00 

4.00 

2.06 

28.00 

Spl.  Big  Two — Phos.  Tkg.  and  Potash 

1.65 

10.00 

1.50 

2.00 

Special  Big  Three — Manure  and  Potash 

0.82 

9.00 

1 .00 

3.00 

Special  Big  Four — Half  and  Half 

0.41 

13.00 

5.00 

Special  Big  Five — Acid.  Phos.  and  Potash . . . 

10.00 

1.00 

2.00 

0 . 82 

16.00 

3.00 

Special  Big  Seven — Spl.  B.  Meal 

0.82 

22.00 

Special  Big  Eight — Corn  and  Oats  Special  . . 

10.00 

1 .00 

4.00 

Big  Eight — Ammo.  A.  P.  and  Potash 

0.82 

8.00 

1.00 

1 .00 

Special  Big  Nine — Phos.  Man.  and  Potash. . . 

0.82 

12.00 

1.00 

1.00 

Big  Ten — Grain  Grower 

1.65 

8.00 

1.50 

2.00 

Special  Big  Eleven — Phos.  and  Manure 

1.65 

10.00 

1.50 

1 . 65 

12.00 

2.00 

Natural  Guano  Company 

Aurora,  Illinois 

‘Sheep’s  Head”  Pulverized  Sheep  Manure.. . 

2.25 

1.00 

0.25 

1.50 

Pelican  Fertilizer  Works, 

Shreveport,  Louisiana 

Pelican  High  Grade 

1.65 

12.00 

2.00 

Pelican  Grain  Special 

1.65 

12.00 

Pelican  Special  Phosphate 

16.00 

Pelican  Grain  Grower  

1.65 

8.00 

2.00 

Pelican  Special  Formula 

0.82 

8.00 

1.00 

The  Pulverized  Manure  Co., 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Wizard  Brand  Manure 

1 . 80 

1 .00 

1 .00 

Wizard  Brand  Phosphated  Manure 

0.82 

9.00 

1.00 

Read  Phosphate  Co., 

Nashville,  Tennessee 

Corn,  Wheat  and  Oat  Grower * 

0.82 

17.00 

7.00 

10.00 

1.00 

Blood  and  Bone  No.  1 

1.65 

13.00 

8.00 

5.00 

2.00 

Missouri  Special 

0.41 

15.00 

8.00 

7.00 

4.00 

Premium  Grain  Grower 

1.65 

15.00 

12.00 

3.00 

2.00 

Missouri  Grain  Special 

0.41 

15.00 

12.00 

3.00 

1.00 

Red  Diamond  Grain  Special 

0.82 

15.00 

12.00 

3.00 

1.00 

High  Grade  Grain  Grower 

0.82 

17.00 

16.00 

1.00 

0.00 

Wheat  and  Clover  Grower 

0.82 

15.00 

12.00 

3.00 

2.00 

Red  Diamond  Favorite 

1.65 

16.00 

12.00 

4.00 

0.00 

High  Grade  Bone  and  Potash 

0.00 

14.00 

12.00 

2.00 

2.00 

High  Grade  Potash  Mixture 

0.00 

16.00 

14.00 

2.00 

2.00 

Special  High  Grade  Phosphate 

0.00 

18.00 

16.00 

2.00 

0.00 

Bone  Mixture 

0.82 

20.00 

13.00 

7.00 

0.00 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


65 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 

Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O6) 

Potash 

(K2O) 

Total 

Avail- 

able 

Insol- 

uble 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

The  C.  F.  Schumaker  Fertilizer  Co., 

St.  Louis,  Missouri 

C.  F.  Schumaker  Brands 

Lawn  and  Floral  Food 

2.00 

6.00 

3.00 

Spec.  Floral  Food 

2.00 

4 . 00 

2.00 

Truck  Grower  No.  1 

2.00 

7.00 

3 50 

Spec.  Crop  Grower 

0.82 

8 . 00 

4.00 

Corn,  Wheat  and  Clover  Grower 

0.41 

12 . 00 

2.00 

Tobacco  Dust  No.  1 

2.00 

0.45 

2.50 

Tobacco  Stems 

1.65 

7.75 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

15.00 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia 

20.00 

Treated  Phosphate 

16.00 

Steamed  Bone  Meal 

2.47 

24.00 

The  Southern  Cotton  Oil  Co., 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas 

SCO  Brands 

Fruit  and  Truck  Special 

2.46 

10  00 

4.00 

Columbia  High  Grade 

2.46 

10.00 

2.00 

Truck  Mixture 

2.46 

8.00 

2.00 

Red  Bull  Wheat  Special 

1.65 

12 . 00 

2.00 

Bre’r  Rabbit 

1 . 65 

10 . 00 

2.00 

Grain  Hustler 

1 .65 

10 . 00 

1 00 

•Quick  Step 

1 .65 

9.00 

2.00 

Missouri  Mixture 

0.82 

10 .00 

1 .00 

Pure  Gold 

0 . 82 

8 .00 

1 00 

Missouri  Special 

1.00 

13.00 

0.00 

Raccoon  Wheat  Grower 

1 . 65 

12.00 

0.00 

Full  Moon  Grain  Grower 

0.00 

12.00 

2.00 

Acid  Phosphate 

0.00 

16.00 

O'.  00 

The  Sterling  Fertilizer  Co., 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Sterling  Harvest  King 

2.40 

8 00 

2.00 

4.00 

Sterling  Harvest  Queen 

1 . 60 

8 . 00 

2 . 00 

2.00 

Sterling  Wonder  Yield 

0 . 80 

8 00 

2 . 00 

3.00 

Sterling  Special  Grain  Grower 

0.80 

9.00 

2 . 00 

1.00 

Sterling  Universal 

1 . 60 

12.00 

2.00 

Sterling  Golden  Harvest 

0 . 80 

8 .00 

2 .00 

10  00 

Sterling  Little  Giant 

0.80 

10 . 00 

2.00 

Sterling  Ten  Five 

10 .00 

5.00 

Sterling  Superior  Brand 

1.60 

12.00 

2.00 

2.00 

Sterling  Champion  Brand 

12 .00 

2.00 

Sterling  16%  Acid  Phosphate 

16.00 

' 

Sterling  Pure  Bone  Meal 

1 . 80 

28.00 

Sterling  Raw  Bone  Meal 

3.70 

22.00 

Sterling  Bone  and  Acid  Phosphate  Half  and 

Half 

0.80 

12.00 

11.00 

66  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  7.- 


-B RANDS  AND  GUARANTEED  ANALYSES  OF  FERTILIZERS  REGISTERED  AND 

Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 

Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

Potash 

(KoO) 

Total 

Avail- 

able 

Insol- 

uble 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Swift  & Company, 

National  Stock  Yards,  Illinois 

Pioneer  Brands 

2-12-2  Grain  Grower 

1.65 

13.00 

12.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Wheat  and  Corn  Grower 

1.65 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

2.00 

2-11-1  Grain  Grower 

1.65 

12.00 

11.00 

1.00 

1.00 

1-12-1  Grain  Grower 

0.82 

12.50 

12.00 

0.50 

1.00 

General  Crop  Grower 

1.65 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

2.00 

2-12-0  

1 .65 

13.00 

12.00 

1 .00 

16.00 

14.00 

2.00 

12-4  Phosphate  and  Potash 

12.00 

4.00 

Bone  Meal  and  Phosphate  Fertilizer 

0.82 

20.00 

13.00 

2)4-29  Bone  Meal  Fertilizer  . 

1.85 

29.00 

Raw  Bone  Meal  Fertilizer. . . 

3.70 

23.00 

Tomato  Grower 

0.82 

8.50 

8.00 

0.50 

3.00 

Swift’s  Brands 

Ammoniated  Bone  Phosphate 

0.82 

10.50 

10.00 

0.50 

Tankage  and  Bone  Phosphate 

0.82 

12.50 

12.00 

0.50 

14-2  Phosphate  and  Potash 

14.00 

2.00 

12-4  Phosphate  and  Potash 

12.00 

4.00 

High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate  Fertilizer 

16.00 

Bone  Meal  and  Phosphate  Fertilizer 

0.82 

20.00 

13.00 

Ground  Beef  Bone  Fertilizer 

2.06 

27.00 

2 )4- 29  Bone  Meal  Fertilizer 

1 . 85 

29.00 

Raw  Bone  Meal  Fertilizer 

3.70 

23.00 

Pulverized  Manure 

1.65 

1.50 

1.00 

0 . 50 

2.00 

Complete  Fertilizer 

0.82 

8.50 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

Champion  Wheat  and  Corn  Grower 

1.65 

13.00 

12.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Superphosphate 

1.65 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Special  Grain  Grower 

1.65 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

2.00 

Diamond  “A”  Fertilizer 

2.47 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

3.00 

Diamond  “B”  Fertilizer 

2.47 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

5.00 

Diamond  “M”  Grain  Grower 

1.65 

12.00 

11.00 

1.00 

1.00 

Diamond  “K”  Grain  Grower 

0.82 

12.50 

12.00 

0.50 

1.00 

Tomato  and  Yeg.  Grower 

1.65 

9.00 

8.00 

1.00 

3.00 

Tomato  Grower 

0.82 

8.50 

8.00 

0.50 

3.00 

Diamond  “L”  Grain  Grower 

1 . 65 

10.00 

9.00 

1.00 

Blood  and  Phosphate 

1.65 

13.00 

12.00 

1.00 

Corn  and  Oats  Special 

1 .65 

11.00 

10.00 

1.00 

Standard  Cotton  and  Corn  Grower 

1 . 65 

12.00 

11.00 

1 .00 

Tennessee  Chemical  Co., 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Ox  Brands 

12-2  Fertilizer 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

12-4  Fertilizer 

12.00 

0.50 

4.00 

2-12-2  Fertilizer 

1.65 

12.00 

0.50 

2.00 

2-10-4  Fertilizer 

1.65 

10.00 

0.50 

4.00 

2-12  Fertilizer 

1 65 

12.00 

0.50 

14%  Acid  Phosphate 

14.00 

0.50 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


67 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 


16%  Acid  Phosphate 

1-12-1  Fertilizer 

Bone  Meal 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

Half  Bone  Meal  and  Half  Acid  Phosphate 

1-10  Fertilizer 

New  Ammoniated  Phosphate 

Wheat,  Corn  and  Oats  Fertilizer 

Ammoniated  Phosphate 

New  Grain  Grower 

Tennesse  Coal,  Iron  and  Railroad  Co., 
Birmingham,  Alabama 

Duplex  Basic  Phosphate 

14%  Duplex  Basic  Phosphate 

12%  Duplex  Basic  Phosphate 

Tupelo  Fertilizer  Factory, 

Tupelo,  Mississippi 

Tupelo  High  Grade  16%  Acid  Phosphate 

Tupelo  Special  High  Grade  18%  Acid  Phos- 
phate  

Cotton  Belt  High  Grade  Corn  Grower 

Tupelo  Special  High  Grade  Fertilizer 

Cotton  Belt  H.  G.  Fertilizer  with  Potash 

Cotton  Belt  High  Grade  Phosphate  and 

Potash 

Tupelo  Special  High  Grade  Phosphate  and 

Potash : 

Wheat  Belt  H.  G.  Grain  Fertilizer 

Wheat  Belt  H.  G.  Special  Fertilizer 

Wheat  Belt  Grain  Grower 

Virginia-Carolina  Chemical  Company, 
Memphis,  Tennessee 

V-C  Plant  Food  for  Vegetables,  Lawns  and 

Flowers 

National  Ammoniated  Superphosphate 

Monarch  Grain  Grower 

V-C  Grain  Grower 

Capital  Phosphate  and  Potash  Compound . . . 

V-C  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Royal  Phosphate  and  Potash  Compound  .... 

Black  Diamond  Phosphate  and  Potash 

V-C  20%  Superphosphate 

V-C  18%  Superphosphate 

V-C  16%  Superphosphate 

Victor  16%  Superphosphate 

Victor  14%  Acid  Phosphate 

Bone  Meal  Mixture 

Steamed  Bone  Meal 

V-C  High  Grade  Top  Dresser 

V-C  Garden  Truck  Special 

Royal  Vegetable  Fertilizer 


Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O6) 

Potash 

(K20) 

Total 

Avail- 

able 

Insol- 

uble 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Per  cent 

16.00 

0.50 

0.82 

12.00 

0.50 

1.00 

2.47 

24.00 

3.71 

22.00 

1.23 

20.00 

11.00 

9.00 

0.82 

10.00 

0 . 50 

0.82 

12.00 

0 . 50 

0.82 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

1.65 

10.00 

1.65 

8.00 

0.50 

1.00 

18.00 

14.00 

14.00 

11.00 

12.00 

9.00 

16.00 

1 .00 

18.00 

1 .00 

2.50 

12.00 

2.00 

2.50 

9.00 

2.00 

3.00 

1.65 

10.00 

2.00 

2.00 

12.00 

1.00 

2.00 

12.00 

1 .00 

4.00 

1.65 

12.00 

2.00 

2.00 

1.65 

12.00 

2.00 

0.00 

0.82 

12.00 

2.00 

1.00 

4.94 

8.00 

3.00 

0.82 

10.00 

0.00 

0.00 

15.00 

2.00 

0.00 

12.00 

2.00 

0.00 

10.00 

2.00 

0.00 

10.00 

4.00 

0.00 

12.00 

1 .00 

0.00 

10.00 

1.00 

0.00 

20.00 

0.00 

0.00 

18.00 

0.00 

0.00 

16.00 

0.00 

0.00 

16.00 

0.00 

0.00 

14.00 

0.00 

3.30 

20.00 

0.00 

2.50 

22.00 

0.00 

6.17 

4.00 

2.50 

4.94 

6.00 

4.00 

2.47 

8.00 

4.00 

68  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  7. — Brands  and  Guaranteed  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Registered  and 
Offered  for  Sale  in  Missouri:  1921 


Fertilizer 

. . 

Nitro- 

gen 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O3) 

Potash 

(K2O) 

Total 

1 

Avail- 

able 

Insol- 

uble 

Percent 

! 

Per  centi 

Per  cent 

Per  cent  i Per  cent 

Eureka  High  Grade  Guano  . . 

2.47 

9.00 

3.00 

Memphis  Truck 

3.30 

10.00 

4.00 

Good  Luck  Wheat  Special 

1 . 65 

12.00 

2.00 

Good  as  Gold  Standard  Guano  

0.82 

12.00 

1.00 

Owl  Brand  Ammoniated  Bone 

0.82 

10.00 

1.00 

Champion  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

0.82 

9.00 

1.00 

Good  Luck  Guano 

0.82 

8.00 

1.00 

Y-C  Dixie  Special,  without  Potash 

3.00 

9.00 

0.00 

V-C  Side  Application 

4.94 

8.00 

0.00 

Crescent  Wheat  Grower  

1.65 

12.00 

0.00 

Capital  Ammoniated  Superphosphate 

1.65 

10.00 

0.00 

Vita-Flora  Co. 

Joplin,  Missouri 

Vita-Flora 

5.62 

10.98 

6 . 65 

Wessell,  Duval  & Company, 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  

14.85 

Nitrate  of  Soda  Containing  Potash 

12.00 

8.00 

Wilson  & Company,  Inc. 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Red  “ W”  Brand 

Special  Bone  Meal 

0.82 

30.00 

Bone  Meal  and  Acid  Phosphate 

0.82 

! 23.00 

12.50 

10.50 

0.00 

Corn  and  Wheat  Special 

1.65 

10.00 

8.00 

| 2.00 

2.00 

Special  Grain  Fertilizer 

0.82 

10.00 

8.00 

1 2.00 

1.00 

“Two-Ten”  Fertilizer 

1.65 

12.00 

10.00 

2.00 

0.00 

Kali-Phosphate 

0.00 

13.00 

12.00 

1.00 

1.00 

Acid  Phosphate 

0.00 

16.00 

0.00 

Grain  Grower  

0.82 

14.00 

12.00 

2.00 

1.00 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


69 


Table  8. — Approximate  Sale  of  Fertilizers  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  by 
Counties,  Based  Upon  Report  of  Shipments  by  the  Fertilizer  Companies 


Sales  in  1920 


Fertilizers  classified  for  1920. 


COUNTY1 

Spring 

Fall 

Total 

Bone 

Acid 

Phos- 

phate 

Mix( 

High 

Grade 

?d  Ferti 

Med. 

Grade 

ilizer 

Low 

Grade 

Misc. 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Adair 

42 

22 

64 

5 

10 

29 

19 

1 

Andrew 

23 

11 

34 

24 

5 

5 

Atchison 

40 

40 

40 

Audrain 

188 

2011 

2199 

470 

883 

228 

394 

154 

70 

Barry 

712 

469 

1181 

201 

78 

275 

318 

116 

193 

Barton 

1045 

1864 

2909 

432 

920 

726 

419 

318 

94 

Bates 

308 

1118 

1426 

256 

502 

289 

322 

57 

Benton 

132 

948 

1080 

566 

162 

115 

130 

67 

40 

Boone 

58 

399 

457 

107 

265 

52 

33 

Bollinger . . 

32 

197 

229 

83 

18 

30 

98 

Buchanan 

19 

101 

120 

14 

34 

46 

1 

25 

Cape  Girardeau 

48 

87 

135 

4 

27 

33 

26 

45 

Caldwell 

91 

163 

254 

19 

64 

120 

51 

Callaway 

576 

1799 

2375 

916 

552 

423 

216 

208 

60 

Camden 

31 

31 

5 

6 

15 

5 

Carroll 

32 

112 

144 

40 

10 

50 

30 

13 

1 

Carter 

30 

30 

60 

15 

15 

30 

Cass 

316 

316 

7 

79 

112 

28 

2 

88 

Chariton 

16 

88 

104 

12 

13 

71 

8 

Christian 

240 

615 

855 

85 

301 

243 

167 

42 

17 

Cedar 

220 

496 

716 

94 

305 

89 

140 

43 

45 

Clark 

2 

2 

2 

Clinton 

17 

124 

141 

30 

22 

82 

7 

Clay 

28 

308 

336 

21 

100 

191 

4 

20 

Cole 

200 

647 

847 

126 

109 

283 

170 

90 

69 

Cooper 

85 

402 

487 

33 

73 

284 

55 

12 

30 

Crawford 

44 

183 

227 

77 

28 

29 

64 

27 

2 

Dade 

120 

527 

647 

106 

28 

170 

165 

6 

172 

Daviess 

70 

124 

194 

17 

55 

83 

31 

8 

DeKalb 

5 

46 

51 

3 

36 

11 

1 

Dent 

30 

171 

201 

57 

15 

25 

22 

82 

Douglas  

80 

20 

100 

5 

40 

15 

25 

15 

Dunklin 

221 

221 

3 

42 

96 

50 

30 

Franklin 

142 

1358 

1500 

259 

270 

266 

465 

178 

62 

Gasconade 

56 

479 

535 

24 

201 

137 

57 

116 

Gentry 

62 

43 

105 

44 

61 

Greene 

495 

1064 

1559 

360 

293 

550 

318 

3 

35 

Grundy 

57 

182 

239 

15 

116 

93 

15 

Harrison 

53 

35 

88 

6 

39 

25 

18 

Henry 

182 

549 

731 

9 

451 

109 

95 

67 

Hickory 

220 

220 

5 

129 

61 

20 

5 

Holt 

3 

3 

3 

Howell 

434 

888 

1322 

35 

251 

113 

596 

326 

1 

Howard 

17 

33 

50 

12 

37 

1 

Iron 

21 

212 

233 

3 

63 

67 

62 

38 

Jackson  

91 

128 

219 

10 

59 

121 

1 

28 

Jasper 

1016 

3168 

4184 

577 

931 

1456 

847 

297 

76 

Jefferson 

3 

295 

298 

76 

71 

43 

31 

74 

3 

Johnson 

120 

113 

233 

1 

58 

84 

90 

Knox 

*60 

60 

5 

55 

70  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


Table  8.- -Approximate  Sale  of  Fertilizers  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  by 
Counties,  Based  Upon  Report  of  Shipments  by  the  Fertilizer  Companies 


Sales  in  1920 


Fertilizers  classified  for  1920. 


COUNTY1 

Spring 

Fall 

Total 

Bone 

Acid 

Phos- 

phate 

Mixed  Fertilizer 

Misc. 

High 

Grade 

Med. 

Grade 

Low 

Grade 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Laclede 

341 

402 

743 

41 

85 

151 

288 

178 

Lafayette 

65 

74 

139 

10 

69 

20 

40 

Lawrence 

966 

1602 

2568 

240 

731 

353 

480 

472 

292 

Lewis 

243 

369 

612 

81 

100 

237 

153 

41 

Lincoln 

582 

1757 

2339 

65 

992 

547 

558 

177 

Linn 

100 

15 

115 

19 

43 

28 

25 

Livingston 

18 

23 

41 

5 

34 

1 

1 

McDonald 

43 

100 

143 

17 

40 

23 

26 

32 

5 

Madison 

90 

440 

530 

65 

191 

104 

120 

50 

Macon 

85 

251 

336 

52 

62 

196 

26 

Maries 

47 

83 

130 

13 

29 

23 

65 

Marion 

91 

304 

395 

9 

121 

67 

115 

53 

30 

Mercer 

40 

69 

109 

29 

50 

15 

15 

Miller 

61 

580 

641 

222 

109 

144 

143 

23 

Mississippi 

15 

15 

15 

Monroe 

211 

588 

799 

176 

93 

266 

196 

18 

50 

Montgomery  

643 

2131 

2774 

1250 

542 

195 

513 

198 

76 

Moniteau 

83 

562 

645 

115 

247 

98 

128 

57 

Morgan 

272 

583 

855 

140 

335 

182 

94 

104 

Newton 

724 

1210 

1934 

412 

304 

384 

492 

187 

155 

New  Madrid 

30 

30 

30 

Nodaway 

88 

44 

132 

5 

43 

21 

2 

61 

Osage 

20 

182 

202 

9 

26 

12 

34 

121 

Oregon 

44 

19 

63 

3 

30 

10 

20 

Ozark 

78 

78 

21 

24 

33 

Perry 

20 

127 

147 

2 

79 

23 

25 

18 

Pettis 

49 

343 

392 

25 

187 

79 

85 

16 

Phelps 

256 

504  . 

760 

211 

293 

155 

21 

55 

25 

Pike 

453 

1352 

1805 

254 

451 

134 

559 

337 

70 

Platte 

20 

44 

64 

38 

23 

3 

Polk 

523 

453 

976 

209 

145 

302 

174 

136 

10 

Pulaski 

280 

312 

592 

94 

82 

190 

4 

204 

18 

Putnam 

16 

16 

15 

1 

Ralls 

82 

1015 

1097 

71 

680 

174 

54 

116 

2 

Ray 

64 

171 

235 

26 

68 

88 

25 

27 

1 

Randolph 

37 

183 

220 

22 

61 

120 

17 

Reynolds 

0.  I2 

0.  I2 

0. 12 

Ripley 

100 

15 

115 

1 

5 

46 

63 

Saline 

26 

28 

54 

12 

14 

21 

7 

Schuyler 

52 

138 

190 

55 

29 

53 

28 

25 

Scott 

1 

40 

41 

41 

Scotland 

2 

2 

2 

Shannon 

45 

35 

80 

45 

3 

32 

Shelby 

166 

516 

682 

183 

125 

196 

127 

51 

Stoddard 

40 

54 

94 

10 

63 

15 

6 

Stone 

1 

45 

46 

2 

8 

12 

22 

2 

St.  Charles 

286 

500 

786 

66 

472 

148 

54 

13 

33 

St.  Clair 

359 

393 

752 

139 

218 

256 

101 

33 

5 

St.  Francois 

63 

947 

1010 

80 

280 

288 

162 

200 

St.  Louis 

47 

70 

117 

2 

26 

9 

5 

6 

69 

Testing  Fertilizers  for  Missouri  Farmers:  1920 


71 


Table  8. — Approximate  Sale  of  Fertilizers  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  by 
Counties,  Based  Upon  Report  of  Shipments  by  the  Fertilizer  Companies 


Sales  in  1920 

Fertilizers  classified  for  1920. 

COUNTY1 

Acid 

Mixed  Fertilizer 

Spring 

Fall 

Total 

Bone 

Phos- 

phate 

High 

Grade 

Med. 

Grade 

Low 

Grade 

Misc. 

Sullivan 

Tons 

81 

Tons 

45 

Tons 

126 

Tons 

2 

Tons 

2 

Tons 

38 

Tons 

34 

Tons 

50 

Tons 

Texas 

202 

303 

505 

32 

216 

98 

41 

73 

45 

Vernon 

273 

617 

890 

190 

229 

205 

160 

100 

162 

6 

Washington 

101 

256 

357 

67 

17 

39 

72 

Warren 

92 

1145 

1237 

305 

113 

253 

60 

504 

2 

Wayne 

26 

82 

108 

67 

40 

1 

Webster 

993 

14-75 

2468 

636 

466 

326 

335 

512 

193 

Worth 

1 

28 

29 

29 

Wright 

193 

1399 

1592 

189 

143 

835 

45 

365 

15 

Totals *.  . . 

17,316 

46,399 

63,715 

10,972 

16,599 

15,000 

11,370 

7,449 

2,325 

'No  reports  received  of  any  shipments  to  Butler,  Dallas,  Pemiscot,  St.  Genevieve, 
and  Taney  Counties. 

2Not  added  in  the  totals. 


72  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  178 


FINANCIAL  STATEMENT 

MISSOURI  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

in  account  with 

FERTILIZER  CONTROL  FUND 


For  the  Year  1920 

Dr. 

Cr. 

RECEIPTS 

Jan.  1 1920,  Balance  on  Hand  

$21,229.36 

36,230.63 

Receipts  from  Sale  of  Tags,  1920 

EXPENDITURES 

Salaries  

$17,673.70 

5,182.32 

3,569.28 

7.042.00 
404.50 
732.71 

1,457.34 

2,050.84 

1.800.00 
134.33 

3,006.72 

89.62 

365.46 

18.00 

85.97 

5,290.20 

1,373.24 

271.12 

Labor  

Publication  . ...  ' 

Postage  and  Stationery 

Freight  and  Express  

Heat,  Light  and  Water  

Chemical  Supplies  * 

Seeds-Plants  and  Sundry  Supplies  

Fertilizers  

Library  

Feeding  Stuffs  

Tools,  Implements  and  Machinery  

Furniture  and  Fixtures  

Contingent 

Scientific  Apparatus 

Live  Stock  

Traveling  Expenses 

Buildings  and  Repairs  

Total  Expenditures  

$50,547.35 

6,912.64 

Balance  on  Hand  Dec.  31,  1920 

$57,459.99 

$57,459.99 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  179 


What  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 

For  the  year  July  1,  1919,  to  June  30,  1920 


Fillies  on  Growth  of  Draft  Colts  test.  May  5,  1920. 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
JANUARY,  1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL, 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 

EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

June,  1920 


agricultural  chemistry 

C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  A.  M. 

Emory  M.  Roller 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 
E.  W.  Lehmann,  B.  S.  in  A.  E. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  A. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

Ray  E.  Miller,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

J.  H.  Longwell,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

W.  E.  Maneval,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 
A.  C.  Ragsdale.  B.  S.  in  i^gr. 

A.  C.  Dahlberg,  M.  S. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Percy  Werner,  Jr.,  A.  M. 

W.  H.  E.  Reed,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

S.  R.  McLanE,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

E.  M.  McDonald,  B S. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,.  A.  M. 

R.  M.  Green,  B.  s.  in  Agr. 

S.  D.  Gromer,  A.  M.* 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S.  H. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B S.  in  Agr. 

poultry  husbandry 

H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

G.  W.  Hervey,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

F.  L-  Duley,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

veterinary  science 

J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman.  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 
R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
J.  G.  Babb,  A.  M.,  Secretary 
E.  H.  Hughes,  A.  M.,  Ass’t  to  Dean 
O.  W.  Weaver,  B.  S.,  Agricultural  Editor 
George  Reeder,  Director  Weather  Bureau 
Miss  Bertha  Hite,1  Seed  Testing  Lab- 
oratory. 

J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 


In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
*On  leave  of  absence. 


To  His  Excellency, 

Honorable  Frederick  D.  Gardner, 

Governor  of  Missouri. 

Sir : 

I submit  herewith  a report  of  the  progress  of  the  investigational  work 
conducted  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  College  of  Agricul- 
ture for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1920.  This  report  is  required  by  the  Federal 
law  and  its  purpose  is  to  indicate  briefly  how  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  has  utilized  the  Federal  and  State  funds  appropriated  for  investigational 
purposes. 

The  report  which  I am  submitting  herewith  covers  only  the  work  in  prog- 
ress or  completed  during  the  period  covered  by  this  report. 

Very  respectfully  submitted, 

F.  B.  Mumford, 


Director. 


The  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

F.  B.  MumRord,  Director 

The  demands  upon  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  definite  infor- 
mation on  many  complicated  problems  affecting  the  agricultural  industry  have 
been  greater  than  in  any  previous  year  of  its  history.  The  farmers  of  Missouri 
have  come  more  and  more  to  rely  upon  the  investigations  of  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  to  guide  them  in  the  solution  of  many  of  the  difficulties 
which  surround  the  operations  of  the  agricultural  producer. 

The  value  of  the  service  which  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  is 
able  to  give  is  often  determined  by  the  promptness  with  which  it  can  attack  the 
problem.  Serious  diseases  may  suddenly  break  out  for  example  in  connection 
with  the  market  garden  industry  or  the  watermelon  industry.  If  the  Station 
is  able  to  respond  promptly  by  sending  a trained  investigator  to  the  region 
where  the  trouble  occurs,  it  is  often  possible  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disastrous 
diseases.  A number  of  such  instances  have  occurred  during  the  past  year, 
and  the  Station  has  been  able  materially  to  assist  in  combatting  such  out- 
breaks. 

The  only  limitations  to  the  amount  of  service  which  the  Station  is  able  to 
render  to  the  agriculture  of  Missouri  is  the  amount  of  funds  available  for  its 
work.  In  this  respect  Missouri  has  not  received  appropriations  commensurate 
with  the  great  importance  of  the  agricultural  industry  or  equal  to  the  appro- 
priations which  have  been  made  for  agricultural  research  in  other  states  of 
much  less  agricultural  importance. 

The  Station  has  had  no  increase  in  its  appropriation  for  the  past  six  years; 
yet  the  demands  upon  the  Station  for  investigational  work  have  more  than 
doubled.  The  result  of  this  situation  has  been  to  curtail  the  number  of  projects 
under  investigation.  The  excessively  high  prices,  due  to  post-war  conditions, 
which  .the  Station  has  been  compelled  to  pay  for  all  of  its  equipment  and  sup- 
plies have  increased  the  difficulty. 

The  importance  of  fundamental  research  was  emphasized  by  the  experi- 
ences of  all  nations  in  the  conduct  of  the  European  war.  The  world  has  come 
to  recognize  the  fact  that  through  scientific  research  only  may  we  look  for  per- 
manent and  rapid  development.  The  great  business  organizations  have  long 
recognized  the  importance  of  such  research  and  have  provided  generously  for 
its  maintenance. 

The  farmer  is  perhaps  more  dependent  upon  all  branches  of  science  than 
any  other  single  producer.  He  cannot  carry  out  such  investigations  for  him- 
self. The  State  has  undertaken  to  provide  this  service  for  the  agricultural  in- 
dustry, and  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  sums  commensurate  with  the  fun- 
damental importance  of  the  agricultural  industry  be  made  available  for  its 
development. 

The  work  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  is  the  basis  of  all  suc- 
cessful teaching,  extension  and  demonstration  work.  A college  of  agriculture 
with  a weak  experiment  station  must  necessarily  have  a superficial  and  unre- 
liable course  of  study  and  extension  service. 

The  Federal  appropriations  to  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion now  amount  to  $60,000  for  the  biennial  period.  The  General  Assembly  of 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


the  State  of  Missouri  meeting  in  January,  1921,  will  be  asked  to  appropriate 
an  equal  amount  to  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station.  If  this  amount  is  appro- 
priated it  will  be  possible  for  the  Experiment  Station  to  meet  more  completely 
the  demands  made  upon  it  by  farmers  of  the  state. 

The  following  pages  contain  a record  of  the  essential  activities  of  the  Ex- 
periment Station  for  the  year. 

CHANGES  IN  STATION  STAFF 

NEW  APPOINTMENTS 
Camp,  J.  R.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 
Hopkins,  E.  F.,  Plant  Pathologist 

Jones,  Mack  M.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering 

Jordan,  Howard  V.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Survey 

McLane,  S.  R.,  Assistant  in  Entomology 

Price,  O.  B.,  Assistant  in  Soils 

Reid,  Wm.  H.  E.,  Assistant  in  Dairy  Husbandry 

Turner,  Chas.  W.,  Assistant  in  Dairy  Husbandry 

Eetson,  O.  W.,  Assistant  in  Field  Crops 

Hall,  A.  R.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 

Peters,  F.  N.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 

Roller,  Emory  M.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 

Friedmann,  Theo.  E.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 

Bradford,  Frederick  C.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Horticulture 

Schenken,  A.  R.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 

RESIGNATIONS 

Lehmann,  E.  W.,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering 
Dahlberg,  A.  C.,  Associate  Professor  of  Dairying 
Hopper,  Turner  H.,  Instructor  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 
McDonald,  E.  M.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  Crops 
Hudelson,  R.  R.,  Associate  Professor  of  Soils 
Mangles,  C.  E.,  Instructor  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 
Shirky,  Sam  B.,  Instructor  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 
Talbert,  T.  J.,  Associate  Professor  of  Horticulture 
Combs,  W.  B.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry 
Fohrman,  M.  F.,  Assistant  in  Dairy  Husbandry 
Roller,  Emory  M.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemistry 

PUBLICATIONS 

The  publications  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  consist  of  bulle- 
tins, research  bulletins  and  circulars.  The  bulletin  series  consists  largely  of 
definite  reports  on  specific  investigations.  Nine  new  bulletins  and  five  reprints 
were  issued  during  the  year.  Research  bulletins  are  essentially  scientific  papers 
presenting  technical  information  for  the  investigator  or  the  person  well  ad- 
vanced in  agricultural  knowledge.  Two  publications  were  added  to  this  series. 
Circulars  are  popular  reports  of  experiments,  or  a summarization  of  informa- 
tion relative  to  some  phase  of  practical  agriculture.  Seven  new  circulars  and 
one  reprint  were  issued. 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Bulletins 

75. 

Wintering  Yearling  Cattle  (re- 

165. Cost  of  Producing  Some  Mis- 

print) 

souri  Farm  Crops 

136. 

Feeding  Wheat  to  Fattening 

166.  Handling  Farm  Manure 

Swine  (reprint) 

167.  R'enting  Land  in  Missouri 

138. 

Farm  Bee-Keeping  (reprint) 

168.  Inspection  of  Commercial  Fer- 

144. 

Self-feeders  for  Fattening  Swine 

tilizers:  1919 

(reprint) 

169.  Profitable  Tomato  Fertilizers 

155. 

Meat  Scrap  and  Sour  Milk  for 

170.  Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops 

Egg  Production  (reprint) 

171.  Agricultural  Lime 

164. 

Capacities  of  Silos  and  Weights 

172.  Work  and  Progress  of  the  Ag- 

of Silage 

ricultural  Experiment  Station, 
1918-1919 

Research 

Bulletins 

35. 

A Study  of  the  Birth  Weight  of 

36.  The  Normal  Growth  of  Dairy 

Calves 

Cattle 

Circulars 

75. 

The  Farmer’s  Poultry  House 

92.  Bagworms  Destructive  in  Mis- 

(reprint) 

souri 

89. 

Estimating  Silo  Capacities  and 

93.  The  Missouri  Poultry  House 

Silage  Weights 

94.  The  European  Corn  Borer 

90. 

Pruning  the  Apple 

95.  Growing  Late  Potatoes 

91. 

Feeding  Baby  Chicks 

BULLETINS 

Showing  number  of  pages,  numbers  of  editions  and  totals. 

No.  Edition  Total  No. 


No. 

Name 

Pages 

Ordered 

Pages 

75. 

Wintering  Yearling  Cattle  (reprint) 

45 

3,000 

135,000 

136. 

Feeding  Wheat  to  Fattening  Swine  (reprint) 

35 

5,000 

175,000 

138. 

Farm  Bee-Keeping  (reprint)  

40 

5,000 

200,000 

144. 

Self-feeders  for  Fattening  Swine  (reprint)—. 

22 

5,000 

110,000 

155. 

Meat  Scrap  and  Sour  Milk  for  Egg  Produc- 
tion (reprint)  

16 

8,000 

128,000 

164. 

Capacities  of  Silos  and  Weights  of  Silage.... 

24 

12,000 

288,000 

165. 

Cost  of  Producing  Some'  Missouri  Farm 
Crops  

26 

10,000 

260,000 

166. 

Handling  Farm  Manure  

29 

10,000 

290,000 

167. 

Renting  Land  in  Missouri  

52 

15,000 

780,000 

168. 

Inspection  of  Commercial  Fertilizers:  1919 

55 

6,500 

357,500 

169. 

Profitable  Tomato  Fertilizers  

12 

5,000 

60,000 

170. 

Insect  Pest?  of  Field  Crops  

39 

5,000 

195,000 

171. 

Agricultural  Lime  

24 

10,000 

240,000 

172. 

Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  1918-1919  

48 

5,000 

240,000 

467 


104,500  3,428,500 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


7 


RESEARCH  BULLETINS 


35. 

A Study  of  Birth  Weight  of  Calves  

11 

2,500 

27,500 

36. 

The  Normal  Growth  of  Dairy  Cattle  ... 

20 

2,500 

50,000 

31 

5,000 

77,500 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 

CIRCULARS 

No. 

Edition 

Total  No. 

No. 

Name 

Pages 

Ordered 

Pages 

75. 

The  Farmer’s  Poultry  House  (reprint)  ... 

12 

10,000 

120,000 

86. 

Soil  Inoculation  for  Legumes  (reprint) 

15 

5,000 

75,000 

89. 

Estimating  Silo  Capacities  and  Silage 

Weights  

4 

10,000 

40,000 

90. 

Pruning  the  Apple  

20 

15,000 

300,000 

91. 

Feeding  Baby  Chicks  — 

4 

12,000 

48,000 

92. 

Bagworms  Destructive  in  Missouri  

4 

5,000 

20,000 

93. 

The  Missouri  Poultry  House  

9 

12,000 

108,000 

94. 

The  European  Corn  Borer  

4 

5,000 

20,000 

95. 

Growing  Late  Potatoes  

4 

4,000 

16,000 

76 

78,000 

747,000 

GRAND  TOTAL,  Bulletins,  Research  Bulletins 

and  Circulars  

574 

187,500 

4,283,000 

SYNOPSES  OF  NEW  PUBLICATIONS  ISSUED  DURING  THE  YEAR 

Capacities  of  Silos  and  Weights  of  Silage,  C.  H.  Eckles,  O.  E.  Reed 
and  J.  B.  Fitch  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  164  (1919),  pp.  3-24,  figs.  2). — 
This  bulletin,  based  on  a combination  of  data  gathered  by  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations  of  Missouri  and  Kansas,  is  designed  to  furnish  more 
reliable  figures  by  which  the  capacities  of  a silo  can  be  estimated.  Rules 
are  given  for  applying  the  data  to  determine  the  size  of  a silo  necessary  to 
hold  a given  amount  of  silage  and  to  determine  the  weight  of  silage  after 
it  has  been  in  the  silo  for  some  time.  Consideration  is  also  given  to 
factors  influencing  the  weight  of  settled  silage;  such  as  percentage  of  water 
in  the  corn,  the  proportion  of  grain  to  forage,  depth  of  the  silage  and  the 
diameter  of  the  silo. 

Cost  of  Producing  Some  Missouri  Farm  Crops,  O.  R.  Johnson,  R.  M. 
Green  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  165  (1919),  pp.  3-26,  figs.  10). — This  is 
a third  publication  in  the  series  based  upon  the  cost  of  production  studies 
begun  in  1910.  This  bulletin  gives  a rather  condensed  statement  of  crop 
production  costs  as  determined  by  data  from  52  Missouri  farms  on  which 
complete  cost-account  records  have  been  kept  since  1910.  The  figures  pre- 
sented are  average  costs  for  the  years  1910  to  1917,  inclusive.  The  crops 
reported  on  are  corn,  oats,  wheat,  rye,  clover,  timothy,  alfalfa,  soybeans, 
and  cowpeas. 

Handling  Farm  Manure,  F.  L.  Duley  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  166 
(1919),  pp.  3-29,  figs.  13). — The  value  of  manure  in  growing  crops,  and  how 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 

best  to  handle  it  to  receive  the  greatest  returns,  is  set  forth  in  this  bulletin. 
The  composition  of  manure  and  how  the  composition  is  changed  and  value 
lost  thru  improper  handling  is  discussed.  The  best  methods  for  storing 
and  later  applying  barnyard  manure  to  cultivated  land,  are  described. 

Renting  Land  in  Missouri,  O.  R.  Johnson  and  R.  M.  Green  (Missouri 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  167  (1920),  pp.  3-52,  figs.  6). — The  three  common  sys- 
tems of  renting  land  in  Missouri — share,  share-cash,  and  cash — are  de- 
scribed in  this  bulletin  which  discusses  the  value  of  each  method  to  both 
parties  to  the  lease.  The  importance  of  the  rental  problem  to  the  welfare  of 
the  state  is  emphasized  by  significant  data.  Rent  rates  realized  over  a 
period  of  years  for  the  four  crops — corn,'  wheat,  oats  and  hay — are  tabu- 
lated. Typical  forms  covering  the  methods  of  leasing  land  mentioned  in 
the  bulletin  are  appended. 

Inspection  of  Commercial  Fertilizers:  1919,  F.  B.  Mumford  and  L.  D. 
Haigh  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  168  (1920),  pp.  3-55). — This  publication 
is  a report  on  the  analysis  of  426  official  samples  representing  187  brands 
of  commercial  fertilizers  offered  for  sale  in  Missouri.  The  power  of  lime- 
stone and  similar  materials  to  neutralize  soil  acidity  is  expressed  in  per- 
centage of  calcium  carbonate  for  143  samples  tested.  The  brands  and 
guaranteed  analysis  of  fertilizers  registered  for  sale  in  Missouri  in  1920 
are  listed. 

Profitable  Tomato  Fertilizers,  J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  169  (1920),  pp.  3-12,  figs.  2). — The  effect  of  different  commercial  fer- 
tilizers and  mixtures  as  well  as  of  stable  manure  on  the  yield  and  time  of 
maturity  of  the  tomato  crop  as  determined  by  cooperative  experiments  with 
ten  tomato  growers,  is  reported  in  this  bulletin.  One-year  tests  were  made; 
one  in  Livingston  County,  two  in  St.  Louis  County,  one  in  Green  County, 
three  in  Newton  County,  and  three  in  Howell  County.  As  a result  of  these 
tests,  it  is  suggested  that  a fertilizer  analyzing  3 or  4 per  cent  nitrogen  and 
10  to  12  per  cent  phosphorus  can  be  profitably  used. 

Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops,  L.  Haseman  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
170  (1920),  pp.  3-39,  figs.  37). — The  most  important  pests  of  corn,  wheat, 
legumes,  grasses,  cotton  and  of  stored  grains  and  seeds  are  discussed  in 
this  bulletin,  which  is  a revision  of  Bulletin  134  by  the  same  author.  A 
description  of  the  insect,  its  life  history,  a statement  of  the  injury  caused, 
and  recommendations  for  its  control,  are  stated. 

Agricultural  Lime,  M.  F.  Miller  and  H.  H.  Krusekopf  (Missouri  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  171  (1920),  pp.  3-24,  figs.  8.) — A full  discussion  of  ground 
limestone  for  agricultural  purposes  is  provided  in  this  bulletin,  which  is  a 
revision  of  Buletin  146  by  the  same  authors.  What  soils  need  lime  and 
why,  what  crops  best  respond  to  it,  where  limestone  can  be  procured  and 
at  what  cost,  and  how  to  grind  and  spread  it,  are  dealt  with.  The  limestones 
in  various  parts  of  Missouri  which  are  suitable  for  agricultural  purposes 
are  described. 

Work  and  Progress  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1918-1919, 

F.  B.  Mumford  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  172  (1920),  pp.  3-48,  figs.  9). — 
This  bulletin  is  the  annual  report  of  the  Director  and  covers  briefly  the 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


9 


work  of  the  Experiment  Station,  its  publications,  and  a financial  statement 
for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1919. 

A Study  of  the  Birth  Weight  of  Calves,  C.  H.  Eckles  (Missouri  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  35  (1919),  pp.  3-11,  figs.  1). — This  bulletin  deals  with 
the  marked  variations  in  the  size  of  dairy  calves  at  birth,  the  extent  and 
cause  of  such  variations,  and  their  significance  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
future  welfare  of  the  animal.  The  new  data  presented  represent  those  ac- 
cumulated over  a period  of  twelve  years  from  the  dairy  herd  owned  by  the 
University  of  Missouri.  The  breeds  represented  are  Holsteins,  Ayrshires, 
Jerseys  of  the  American  and  Island  types  and  dairy  Shorthorns. 

The  Normal  Growth  of  Dairy  Cattle,  C.  H.  Eckles  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp. 
Sta.  Res.  Bui.  36  (1920),  pp.  3-20,  figs.  5). — The  curve  of  normal  growth 
from  birth  to  maturity,  as  represented  by  weight  and  height  at  withers,  is 
given  for  females  of  the  Jersey,  Holstein,  Ayrshire  and  the  dairy  type  of 
Shorthorn  breeds,  in  this  bulletin.  The  data  upon  which  this  curve  is 
based  were  taken  at  monthly  intervals  from  birth  to  maturity  from  animals 
in  the  University  of  Missouri  herd.  A compilation  of  data  is  also  given 
showing  the  average  height  at  withers  and  weight  of  mature  Jersey,  Hol- 
stein and  Ayrshire  cows. 

Estimating  Silo  Capacities  and  Silage  Weights,  C.  H.  Eckles  (Missouri 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Circular  89  (1919),  pp.  4). — This  circular  presents  new  tables 
for  estimating  silage  weight  when  filling  is  completed,  and  for  estimating 
the  weight  of  settled  silage.  Rules  for  applying  the  tables  to  specific  prob- 
lems are  given.  This  information  is  essentially  a reprint  from  Missouri 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  164. 

Pruning  the  Apple,  V.  R.  Gardner  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Circular  90 
(1920),  pp.  20,  figs.  11). — Pruning  apple  trees  to  increase  production,  improve 
grades,  and  lower  production  costs,  is  discussed  in  this  circular  from  the 
standpoint  of  the. young  tree,  the  tree  just  coming  into  bearing,  and  the 
bearing  tree.  The  training  of  fruit  trees  is  touched  upon. 

Feeding  Baby  Chicks,  H.  L.  Kempster  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Circular 
91  (1920),  pp.  4). — The  essentials  of  a chick  ration  are  set  forth  in  this 
condensed  discussion  of  feeds  for  baby  chicks.  The  necessity  for  vitamines 
in  the  diet  is  emphasized.  A daily  routine  and  feeding  schedule  for  chicks 
from  the  time  they  are  hatched  to  maturity,  is  suggested. 

Bagworms  Destructive  in  Missouri,  L.  Haseman  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp. 
Sta.  Circular  92  (1920),  pp.  4,  figs.  4). — This  circular  deals  with  the  ever- 
green bagworm  which  is  periodically  destructive  in  the  state.  The  life 
history  of  the  pest  is  given,  and  control  measures  suggested. 

The  Missouri  Poultry  House,  H.  L.  Kempster  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Circular  93  (1920),  pp.  9,  figs.  8). — This  circular  is  descriptive  of  the  Mis- 
souri Poultry  house  which  was  designed  by  the  Poultry  Department  of  the 
College  of  Agriculture  to  meet  the  demand  for  a house  of  such  size  as  to 
accommodate  the  average  Missouri  farm  flock  and  also  be  adapted  to 
Missouri  conditions.  Plans  and  specifications  for  building  are  provided, 
and  the  valuable  features  of  the  house  described. 

The  European  Corn  Borer,  E.  Haseman  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir- 
cular 94  (1920),  pp.  4,  figs.  1). — A description  of  the  European  corn  borer, 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


its  life  history  and  methods  for  control,  as  well  as  a brief  statement  of  the 
Missouri  quarantine  against  the  pest,  are  provided  in  this  circular. 

Growing  Late  Potatoes,  J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.  (Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir- 
cular 95  (1920),  pp.  4). — What  varieties  of  Irish  potatoes  to  select  for  late 
planting,  how  to  plant  and  cultivate  them,  both  for  table  use  and  for  seed 
purposes  the  following  spring  are  discussed  in  this  circular.  Harvesting 
and  storing  are  also  touched  upon. 

CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  SCIENTIFIC  JOURNALS  AND 
PERIODICALS 

C.  R.  Moulton — Journal  Biol.  Chemistry  Aug.  1920.  Biochemical 
changes  in  the  flesh  of  beef  animals  during  partial  starvation. 

L.  S.  Palmer  and  H.  L.  Kempster — September  Issue  of  the  Journal 
Biological  Chemistry.  Vol.  39  No.  2 Sept.  1919.  “Relation  of  Plant  Caro- 
tinoids  to  Growth,  Fecundity,  and  Reproduction  of  Fowls.”  “The  Physio- 
logical Relation  Between  Fecundity  and  the  Natural  Yellow  Pigmentation 
of  Certain  Breeds  of  Fowls.”  “The  Influence  of  Specific  Feeds  and  Certain 
Pigments  on  the  Color  of  the  Eye,  Yolk,  and  Body  Fat  of  Fowls.” 

H.  L.  Kempster — Journal,  American  Association  of  Instructors  and  In- 
vestigators in  Poultry  Husbandry.  “The  Physiological  Relation  Between 
Fecundity  and  the  Natural  Yellow  Pigmentation  of  Certain  Breeds  of 
Fowls.” 

F.  B.  Mumford — Wallace’s  Farmer,  May  21,  1920.  “Effect  of  Early 
Breeding  of  Swine.  ' 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr. — Prac.  Annex  Soc.  Hort.  Sci.  16,  190,  197,  December, 
1919,  “Nature  of  Hardening  in  Vegetable  Plants.” 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr. — Prac.  American  Botanical  Soc.  December  1919.  “Effect 
of  Hardening  on  the  Chemical  Composition  of  Tomato,  Lettuce,  and  Cab- 
bage Plant.” 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  PUBLICATIONS 

The  mailing  list  for  Experiment  Station  publications  is  divided  into 
seven  classifications  wdth  a total  of  14,576  names.  The  classes  are:  Com- 

mercial fertilizers,  dairy  husbandry,  animal  husbandry,  farm  crops  and 
soils,  horticulture,  poultry,  and  home  economics.  More  than  102,000  copies 
of  Station  publications  were  distributed  from  the  mailing  room  last  year. 
Of  this  number,  about  twro-thirds  were  sent  to  persons  whose  names  appear 
on  the  classified  mailing  lists.  The  remainder  were  sent  in  answer  to  indi- 
vidual requests. 

The  demand  for  publications  has  been  increasing  annually.  Slightly 
fewer  were  mailed  out  this  year  than  last,  yet  the  demand  has  not  been 
reduced.  Anticipating  a more  conservative  mailing  policy,  a number  of 
publications  distributed  toward  the  close  of  the  year  were  not  sent  to  the 
classified  lists.  Had  these  been  mailed  in  keeping  with  the  former  policy, 
the  year’s  total  would  have  been  greater.  The  increased  demand  has  largely 
come  through  the  increasing  agricultural  interest  in  high  schools  and  a 
return  to  approximately  normal  attendance  in  the  agricultural  colleges 
throughout  the  United  States.  Also  every  increase  in  the  boys’  and  girls’ 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


11 


club  enrollment  in  the  Agricultural  Extension  Service  of  the  College  is 
usually  reflected  to  some  degree  in  the  distribution  of  Station  publications. 

It  was  a determination  to  meet  the  demands  of  those  really  needing  the 
publications  that  caused  the  curtailment  of  distribution  to  the  classified 
lists. 

A Mailing  List 

The  Missouri  Station  has  had  in  force  for  some  time,  rules  which  seem 
a little  more  conservative  and  made  for  more  economy  in  the  distribution 
of  publications  than  those  in  force  at  other  experiment  stations.  A survey 
of  all  experiment  stations  in  the  United  States  to  determine  this  point  was 
made  by  the  questionnaire  method.  This  survey  supported  the  advanced 
policy  already  in  force  by  the  Missouri  Station  and  argued  for  an  even  more 
advanced  step  in  conservation — that  of  mailing  publications  only  on  request. 
This  policy  is  in  force  in  three  experiment  station  mailing  rooms  and  others 
have  the  step  under  advisement. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  this  Station  to  withhold  publications  from  any 
one  who  desires  them,  but  the  increased  cost  of  printing,  which  has  re- 
acted in  a manner  similar  to  a reduction  in  the  appropriations  for  publica- 
tions, makes  strict  economy  necessary. 

PROGRESS  OF  INVESTIGATIONAL  WORK 

It  has  been  customary  for  a number  of  years  to  make  brief  progress 
reports  of  investigations  in  the  Experiment  Station.  Only  the  more  im- 
portant investigations  are  summarized  in  this  report  of  active  work.  Such 
a report  has  value  in  indicating  the  character  of  investigations  and  the  prog- 
ress which  is  being  made  from  year  to  year.  There  has  been  some  dis- 
turbance of  the  Experiment  Station  activities  due  to  the  general  unrest  after 
the  war.  Such  disturbance  has  not  been  serious  and  the  work  accom- 
plished has  on  the  whole  been  satisfactory. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  summaries  presented  herewith 
are  not  complete  records  of  all  the  work  undertaken  by  the  departments 
named.  They  do  represent  the  major  projects  and  are  therefore,  indicative 
of  the  achievements  of  the  Station  staff  during  the  year. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

Use  of  Feed  Experiments  (C.  R.  Moulton,  W.  S.  Ritchie,  L.  D.  Haigh). 
— The  data  is  being  studied  and  interpreted  for  publication.  The  accom- 
panying charts  indicate  the  growth  that  may  be  expected  of  normal  beef 
animals  from  birth  to  four  years  of  age  when  fed  (1)  all  they  will  eat,  (2) 
a ration  for  maximum  growth  without  much  fattening  and  (3)  a ration  rep- 
resenting poor  farm  conditions..  The  first  group  gained  rapidly  and  weighed 
on  the  average  of  about  2000  pounds  at  four  years.  The  other  groups 
weighed  about  1000  to  1200  pounds  respectively.  This  method  of  feeding 
made  no  difference  in  the  height  of  the  animals  but  decreased  the  length 
about  10  to  12  percent.  The  circumference  of  the  chest  at  the  region  of  the 
heart  was  decreased  20  to  25  per  cent. 

The  charts  presented  should  serve  as  a measure  of  the  growth  of  a 
steer  of  the  Hereford-Shorthorn  type..  They  set  a standard  to  which  the 
performance  of  any  steer  can  be  compared. 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Weights  of  Steers  as  Influenced  by  Age  of  Animal  and  amount  of  Feed. 


Heights  of  Steers  as  Influenced  by  Age  of  Animal  and  Amount  of  Feed. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


13 


Chest  Girth  of 


Steers  as  Influenced  by  Age 


of  Animal  and  Amount 


of  Feed. 


Length  of  Steers  as  Influenced  by  Age  of  Animal  and  Amount  of  Feed. 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

An  Investigation  of  Sanitary  Conditions  on  Farms  and  Experiments 
to  Determine  the  Best  Types  of  Sanitary  Equipment  (Mack  M.  Jones, 
E.  W.  Lehmann). — The  sanitary,  social  and  economic  survey  of  farms  in 
Ashland  Community,  Howard  County,  Missouri,  has  been  completed  and 
the  results  have  been  filed  for  publication. 

Investigation  to  Determine  the  Dra£t  of  Various  Farm  Implements 
(Mack  M.  Jones). — Draft  tests  have  been  made  to  determine  the  influence 
of  speed  upon  the  draft  and  power  consumption  of  plows.  The  tests  were 
made  on  the  State  Farm  at  Columbia,  Missouri,  in  June,  1920,  on  a soil 
which  is  classified  as  a Putnam  silt  loam.  The  ground  had  been  in  corn 
the  previous  year.  It  was  plowed  in  the  fall  of  1919,  but  during  the  winter 
the  ground  became  compact,  and  in  the  following  spring  a heavy  growth  of 
weeds  came  up.  The  ground  was  prepared  for  the  tests  by  double  disking, 
followed  by  harrowing  and  rolling  with  a culti-packer.  This  put  the  ground 
into  excellent  plowing  condition.  All  factors  affecting  the  draft  and  power 
consumption  of  plows,,  except  speed,  were  kept  as  nearly  constant  as  pos- 
sible. These  tests  were  made  on  an  Oliver  (Xo.  273)  two-bottom,  12-inch 
general  purpose  plow.  A Moline  tractor  pulled  the  plow  at  various  speeds, 
and  an  Iowa  integrating  dynamometer  was  used  to  measure  the  draft  and 
the  work  done  during  each  test,  each  individual  test  covering  a distance  of 
fifty  feet.  The  time  required  to  pull  the  plow  the  test  distance  was  meas- 
ured with  a stop  watch.  From  the  work  done  and  the  time  required  to  do  it, 
the  power  developed  was  calculated.  In  order  to  make  the  tests  more 
valuable,  they  were  started  at  the  same  point  on  each  round.  Thus  data 
were  secured  on  strips  of  ground  that  lay  parallel  to  each  other. 

The  data  secured  were  compiled  and  the  results  plotted  in  the  form  of 
curves  with  horsepower  as  ordinated  against  rate  of  travel  in  miles  per  hour 
as  abscissae.  From  the  curves  the  following  table  of  averages  was  made, 
the  draft  being  calculated  from  the  value  of  horsepower. 


Average  Results  of  First  Series  of  Tests 


per  Hour,  Miles 

Draft  Pounds 

Horsepower 

1.5 

725 

2.90 

2.0 

758 

4.04 

2.5 

795 

5.30 

3.0 

844 

6.75 

3.5 

894 

8.34 

4.0 

946 

10.09 

4.5 

996 

11.95 

The  results  show  that  increasing  the  plowing  speed  increased  the  draft 
and  the  power  consumption  of  the  plow  very  materially.  In  these  tests  an 
increase  of  the  plowing  speed  from  two  to  three  miles  per  hour  (which  in- 
creased the  work  done  50  per  cent)  increased  the  draft  11.3  per  cent  and 
increased  the  power  consumption  67  per  cent;  and  an  increase  of  the  plow- 
ing speed  from  two  to  four  miles  per  hour  (which  increased  the  work  done 
100  per  cent)  increased  the  draft  24.8  per  cent  and  increased  the  power  con- 
sumption 149.5  per  cent. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

A Study  of  the  Effects  of  the  Periods  of  Gestation  and  Lactation  Upon 
the  Growth  and  Composition  of  Swine  (F.  B.  Mumford). — A thesis  has  been 
written  by  J.  H.  Longwell  entitled,  “The  Influence  on  the  Period  of  Gesta- 
tion and  Lactatoin  of  Early  Swine.” 

Heavy  and  Light  Grain  Rations  When  Fed  in  Connection  With  Corn 
Silage  and  Clover  Hay  for  Fattening  Steers  (E.  A.  Trowbridge). — Forty 
head  of  steers  were  marketed  at  Chicago  on  May  17,  1920.  The  object  of 
this  experiment  was  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  increased  use  of  corn 
silage  and  limitation  or  elimination  of  shelled  corn  in  the  ration  for 
fattening  two-year-old  cattle  for  market..  An  added  object  of  this  year’s 


L,ot  V,  fed  a maximum  amount  of  silage  and  alfalfa  hay  • and,  in  addition,  linseed  oil  meal 
during  the  last  sixty  days  of  the  feeding  period. 


test  was  to  secure  data  concerning  cattle  which  received,  during  the  first 
half  of  their  feeding  period,  only  corn  silage  and  alfalfa  hay. 

Each  lot  of  cattle  shows  a loss;  ranging  from  $19.97  per  steer  for  Lot 
5 which  was  fed  corn  silage  and  alfalfa  hay  throughout  the  test  and  linseed 
oil  cake  (peasize)  during  the  last  sixty  days,  to  $34.12  per  head  for  Lot  1 
which  was  full  fed  for  the  entire  period  on  shelled  corn  oil  cake,  corn 
silage  and  alfalfa  hay.  These  results  generally  agree  with  results  of 
previous  work,  showing  an  advantage  on  the  present  markets  in  favor  of 
extensive  use  of  corn  silage  and  an  elimination  or  reduction  of  shelled  corn. 

The  following  table  shows  the  ration  and  loss  per  steer  in  each  lot: 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Summary  of  Steer  Feeding  Trial — 1920 


Lot 

1 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

Number  of  steers  

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

Average  initial  weight  in  pounds 

923 

919 

907 

917 

906 

Average  final  weight  in  pounds 

1264.5 

1205.9 

1161.5 

1174.2 

1144.5 

Average  daily  gain  per  steer,  in  pounds.. 

2.85 

2.39 

2.12 

2.14 

1.99 

Average  daily  ration  per  steer,  in  pounds 

16.10 

*15.58 

*15.54 

Linseed  oil  cake  

2.76 

2.78 

2.78 

2.61 

*2.61 

Alfalfa  hay  

2.46 

2.87 

3.09 

2.76 

3.05 

Corn  silage  

21.82 

34.17 

47.55 

34.52 

48.04 

Cost  of  feed  per  steer  

$80.39 

$62.31 

$45.83 

$55.42 

$39.27 

Necessary  selling  price  in  lots 

$15.23 

$14.43 

$13.44 

$14.21 

$13.06 

Gain  nn  hogs  per  steer,  in  pounds  

62.00 

14.88 

14.25 

Pork  credit  per  steer  (crediting  gain  on 

hogs  at  $14  00  per  cwt.) 

$ 8.68 

$ 2.08 

$ 2.00 

Cost  of  gain  per  100  lbs.  on  steers  (credit 

ing  gain  on  hogs  at  $14.00  cwt.) 

$21.00 

$20.99 

$18.01 

$20.76 

$16.46 

Necessary  selling  price  in  lots  crediting 

pork  produced  

$14.55 

$14.26 

$13.44 

$14.05 

$13.06 

Selling  price  in  Chicago  

$12.90 

$12.50 

$12.00 

$12.60 

$12.25 

Shrinkage  in  shipment,  pounds  per  head.. 

43.25 

29.65 

34.00 

27.95 

30.25 

Dressing  percentages  

61.48 

59.90 

58.08 

60.50 

58.38 

Net  loss  per  steer  (pork  credited)  

$34.12 

$32.71 

$27.80 

$28.27 

$19.97 

*Lot  II  fed  corn  only  last  60  days,  average  taken  only  for  the  time  fed. 

*Lot  IV  fed  corn  and  linseed  oil  cake  only  last  60  days,  average  taken  only  for  time  fed. 
*Lot  V fed  linseed  oil  cake  only  last  60  days,  average  taken  only  for  time  fed. 


Hogging  Down  Corn  and  Soybeans  (L.  A.  Weaver). — Five  lots  were 
hogged  down  and  the  additional  ration  fed  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Plot 


Crop 


Additional  Feed 


1 Corn  and  Soybeans 

2 Corn 

3 Corn  and  Soybeans 

4 Corn 

5 Corn  and  Soybeans 


Tankage 

Tankage 

None 

None 

None 


The  soybeans  in  the  plots  1 and  3 were  planted  in  the  rows  at  the 
same  time  the  corn  was  planted.  In  the  plot  5 the  crop  was  planted  by 
having  two  rows  of  corn  and  two  rows  of  soybeans  alternating.  This  year’s 
results  indicate:  First,  that  either  corn  alone  or  corn  and  soybeans  may 

be  satisfactorily  harvested  by  hogging  down.  Second,  that  the  feeding 
of  tankage  in  a self-feeder  to  hogs  on  corn  materially  increases  the  rate 
of  gain,  and  in  this  case,  also,  the  economy  of  gain.  That  is,  the  hogs  not 
only  gained  more  rapidly  but  the  gain  was  cheaper.  Third,  that  soybeans 
planted  in  the  corn  at  last  cultivation  helped  to  balance  the  corn;  for  when 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


17 


the  crop  is  hogged  down,  the  combination  thereby  increases  both  rate  and 
economy  of  gain.  Fourth,  that  when  soybeans  are  used  in  this  manner, 
they  will  not  completely  take  the  place  of  tankage.  Fifth,  that  an  acre  of 
corn  pastured  off  with  hogs  will  produce  more  pork,  if  tankage  is  fed  in  ad- 
dition, than  will  an  acre  of  corn  and  soybeans  hogged  down  without  addi- 
tional supplement..  These  results  cannot  be  considered  conclusive  since 
they  are  only  for  one  year. 

Growth  and  Development  of  Draft  Colts  (E.  A.  Trowbridge,  D.  W. 
Chittenden). — The  amount  of  feed  required  to  grow  a draft  horse  from 


Growth  of  Draft  Colts.  On  left:  Meana  spring  1920,  filly  making  greatest  gain  through  first 
period  of  test.  On  right;  Chatonias  spring  1920,  colt  making  smallest  gain  through 
first  period  of  test. 


Foals  on  Growth  of  Draft  Colts  test,  Dec.  15,  1919. 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


weaning  time  until  old  enough  to  work  is  one  of  the  important  factors  in 
the  production  of  horses.  This  experiment  is  concerned  with  the  feed  con- 
sumed by  draft  horses  raised  under  approximately  farm  conditions  and  fed 
to  secure  liberal  growth  and  condition.  Seven  purebred  Percheron  foals 
are  being  used  in  this  test.  The  group  consists  of  four  fillies  and  three 
colts  gelded  in  the  spring  of  1920.  The  foals  were  fed  what  grain  they 
would  eat  while  nursing  their  mothers.  No  group  divisions  were  made 
since  all  the  foals  were  to  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

The  first  period  of  the  experiment  extended  from  September  26,  1919, 
to  May  1,  1920.  When  the  colts  were  turned  on  blue  grass  pasture,  the 
second  period  was  begun.  The  following  is  a summary  of  the  results  of  the 
first  period: 


Average  initial  weight  506.5  lbs. 

Average  final  weight  ; 836.5  lbs. 

Average  total  gain  per  colt  per  period  330.0  lbs. 

Average  daily  gain  per  colt  1.51  lbs. 

Average  daily  ration  per  colt  grain  6.75  lbs. 

2 parts  crushed  oats 
2 parts  crushed  corn 
1 part  bran 

Hay,  choice  alfalfa  7.47  lbs. 

Total  feed  per  colt  for  the  period 

Corn  .1 1 10.56  bus. 

Oats  18.5  bus(. 

Bran  295.8  lbs. 

Alfalfa  hay  1600  lbs. 


Corn  Silage  as  a Part  Ration  for  Horses  of  Various  Ages  (E.  A.  Trow- 
bridge, D.  W.  Chittenden). — Six  mares  were  fed  from  January  15  to  Feb- 
ruary 26,  1920,  on  a grain 'ration  of  two  parts  shelled  oats,  twro  parts  shelled 
corn  and  one  part  wheat  bran.  Oats  straw  wras  fed  as  a roughage  in  the 
morning  and  corn  silage  as  a roughage  in  the  evening.  These  mares  were 
not  worked  but  were  kept  in  the  barn  at  night  and  allowed  to  exercise  in  a 
dry  lot  during  the  day. 

A summary  of  the  data  secured  follows: 


Length  of  Trial  

No.  horses  on  trial  

Average  initial  weight  

Average  final  weight  - - =• 

Average  gain  for  period  

Average  daily  ration  of  grain  

Average  daily  consumption  of  oats  straw 
Average  daily  consumption  of  silage  


6 weeks 
6 

1498  lbs. 
1513  lbs. 
15  lbs. 
9.49  lbs. 
8.08  lbs. 
15  lbs. 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  ration  was  practically  a maintenance  ration, 
although  the  mares  gained  slightly.  These  mares  were  in  good  working 
condition  throughout  the  trail. 

All  of  the  horses  on  the  test  ate  silage  readily  from  the  beginning. 
During  the  two  previous  years,  some  difficulty  had  been  experienced  in  get- 
ting some  of  the  horses  to  eat  silage  but  such  was  not  the  case  this  year. 

Age  as  a Factor  in  Animal  Breeding  (F.  B.  Mumford). — This  project 
has  now  been  in  progress  nearly  ten  years.  Factor  90,  from  the  second 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


19 


litter  of  Factor  80,  represents  the  ninth  generation  of  the  immature  group 
and  has  farrowed  two  litters  during  the  year,  the  first  litter  on  June  25th, 
1919,  and  the  second  litter  February  6th,  1920.  Factor  80  had  no  sow  pigs 
in  her  first  litter.  During  the  year,  forty  pigs  were  farrowed  and  thirty- 
three  were  raised. 

The  five  pigs  in  the  accompanying  photographs  are  from  the  fifth  litter 
of  Factor  70,  representing  the  eighth  generation  of  continued  early  breed- 
ing. This  litter  averaged  44  pounds  at  eight  weeks  of  age,  and  reached 
250  pounds  in  290  days. 


Fifth  litter  of  Factor  70,  in  eighth  generation  of  continued  early  breeding. 


Factors  Influencing  the  Rate  of  Growth  in  Domestic  Animals  and  the 
Permancency  of  the  Effects  of  Arrested  Development  (F.  B.  Mumford,  D. 
W.  Chittenden  and  J.  H.  Longwell). — There  are  ten  steers  under  observa- 
tion in  this  experiment.  These  steers  are  divided  into  three  groups.  Group 
I comprises  the  animals  fed  for  “maximum  growth,”  and  the  daily  gains 
of  each  animal  in  this  lot  approximate  0.8  pound  per  day.  This  permits  a 
fairly  rapid  development,  but  precludes  a marked  deposition  of  fat.  The 
steers  in  group  II  receive  a less  liberal  ration,  and  each  makes  daily  gains 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 

of  about  0.5  pound.  The  steers  in  group  III  are  given  a decidedly  limited 
ration,  and  the  average  daily  gain  is  restricted  to  a little  over  0.3  lb.  per 
head. 

These  steers  are  six  years  old  and  represent  each  of  the  three  nutritive 
planes.  All  are  increasing  in  stature,  but  this  rate  of  growth  seems  subject 


Steer  579  is  in  Group  II;  steer  5S5  is  in  Group  III,  and  steer  52S  in  Group  1. 


to  the  individuality  of  the  animals.  Numbers  528  (I)  and  579  (II)  are  ap- 
parently growing  at  the  maximum  rate  permitted  by  their  respective  planes 
of  nutrition.  Number  585  (III),  however,  is  considerably  shorter  and  more 
compact  than  the  other  two  and  has  a relatively  thicker  covering. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


21 


The  following  table  shows  the  development  of  typical  steer  of  each 
group  during  past  year. 

All  measurements  are  in  centimeters 


Number  of  steers  and 
Number  of  group 

Steer  528 
Group  I 

Steer  579 
Group  II 

Steer  585 
Group  III 

Date  of  measurements  

6/3/19-6/3/20 

6/3/19-6/3/20 

6/3/19-6/3/20 

Height  at  withers 

140.5-145.0 

136.5-139.0 

124.5-128.0 

Height  at  point  midway  between 

top  hip  points  

142.0-144.5 

137.5-140.0 

127.5-129.5 

Depth  of  chest  

76.0-  77.5 

67.5-  69.0 

59.5-  63.5 

Width  of  chest  

41.0-  43.5 

33.0-  34.5 

29.0-  36.0 

Uength  of  foreleg,  elbow  to  ground  

81.0-  82.0 

82.0-  84.0 

73.0-  77.0 

Distance  from  withers  to  line  between 
top  hip  points  

101.0-106.0 

106.0-110.0 

89.0-  99.0 

Width  of  hips  

56.5-  60.5 

47.5-  49.5 

43.0-  47.5 

BOTANY 

A Study  of  Certain  Fusarial  Diseases  of  Plants  (E.  F.  Hopkins). — The 
two  diseases  corn  root-rot  and  wheat  scab  have  been  studied  principally 
although  observations  have  also  been  made  on  two  other  fusarial  diseases, 
tomato-wilt  and  cabbage  yellow. 

Corn  Root-Rot : The  experimental  results  indicate:  (1)  That  corn 

seed  from  an  apparently  healthy  ear  may  harbor  fungous  mycelium.  (2) 
The  mycelium  is  located  near  the  tip  of  the  grain  in  the  darkened  layer 
covering  the  scutellum.  (3)  Six  different  organisms,  some  of  them  fusaria, 
have  been  found  commonly  associated  with  these  infected  areas.  (4)  Some 
of  these  organisms  are  pathorganic  being  capable  of  invading  the  tissue  of 
living,  healthy  corn  roots  under  laboratory  conditions. 

Wheat  Scab:  The  work  on  wheat  scab  during  the  past  year  includes: 

(1)  A complete  review  and  summary  of  the  literature,  on  wheat  scab  has 
been  made.  (2)  Data  concerning  the  regional  distribution  and  amount  of 
damage  caused  by  wheat  scab  has  been  summarized.  In  1919,  the  average 
amount  of  scab  as  determined  from  a large  number  of  counts  in  40  coun- 
ties was  4.0  per  cent.  The  highest  per  cent,  25.6,  was  reported 
from  Harrison  County.  The  average  amount  this  year  was  about  5.8  per 
cent.  Wheat  scab  this  season  was  more  severe  in  Southeast  Missouri  than 
in  any  other  section  of  the  state.  (3)  Isolations  from  fungi  from  specimens 
of  scabby  wheat  from  various  parts  of  Missouri  showed  that  75  per  cent 
of  the  isolations  were  pure  cultures  from  a fusarium  of  the  Giberella  type 
and  of  these  over  half  formed  perethecia  of  Gibberella  saubinettii  in  culture. 
In  pot  experiments  with  wheat  seedlings,  infection  was  obtained. 

Preliminary  experiments  have  been  performed  on  the  relation  of  the 
growth  of  wheat  scab  organism  to  hydrogen  ion  concentration  with  a view 
to  the  practical  control  of  the  disease. 


22  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


A Study  of  the  Metabolism  of  Roots  (W.  J.  Robbins,  W.  E.  Maneval). 
— This  investigation  was  designed  to  determine  whether  any  other  mate- 
rials, in  addition  to  the  essential  mineral  salts  and  water  obtained  from  the 
soil  solution,  oxygen  obtained  from  the  air  and  carbohydrate  obtained  from 
the  plant  top,  are  required  for  the  growth  and  development  of  the  root.  A 
method  has  been  developed  for  the  growth  of  root  tips  or  stem  tips  under 
sterile  controlled  conditions  which  will  permit  a direct  attack  on  the 
problems  indicated. 

DAIRY 

Nutrition  of  Heifers — Raising  Calves  on  Milk  Substitutes  (A.  C.  Rags- 
dale, Chas.  W.  Turner). — Putting  Calves  on  a hay  and  grain  ration  at  the 
age  of  60  days.  The  work  done  at  this  Station  to  determine  if  normal  gains 
can  be  secured  with  calves  if  taken  off  skimmilk  at  60  days  of  age,  has  been 
continued  during  the  winter.  The  calves  were  weighed  every  ten  days  and 
measured  every  thirty  days.  These  weights  and  measurements  were  com- 
pared with  the  normal  weights  and  measurements  for  the  breed  as  worked 
out  at  this  Station. 

The  plan  followed  has  been  to  get  the  calves  to  take  a good  ration  of 
skimmilk  with  some  hay  and  grain-  For  the  first  two  weeks  after  birth,  a 
small  calf,  such  as  a Jersey  received  from  8 to  10  pounds  of  milk  daily. 
This  should  be  fed  in  two  or  three  feeds  per  day.  When  the  calves  were 
two  weeks  old,  they  were  gradually  changed  from  a ration  of  whole  milk 
to  a ration  of  skimmilk  by  substituting  an  equal  amount  of  skimmilk  for 
each  portion  of  whole  milk  removed.  The  substitution  was  completed  in  a 
week  or  ten  days.  The  calves  were  fed  liberally  on  this  plan  until  60  days 
of  age.  At  60  days  of  age,  the  actual  experiment  began.  The  milk  was 
decreased  daily  until  at  65  days  of  age,  they  were  receiving  only  grain  and 
hay. 

The  rations  fed  were  as  follows:  Tot  T,  soybean  hay  as  a roughage 

aid  a grain  mixture  composed  of  corn  chops,  four  parts;  wheat  bran,  one 
part,  and  oil  meal,  one  part  by  weight.  Lot  II,  alfalfa  hay  as  a roughage 
and  a grain  mixture  similar  to  the  first  with  the  exception  that  one  part  soy- 
bean meal  replaced  the  oil  meal. 

Lot  I,  fed  soybean  hay,  made  average  daily  gain  of  1.05  pounds  which 
is  71.24  per  cent  of  normal  gains  for  this  age.  They  averaged  13.2  cm. 
gain  in  height  which  is  69.67  per  cent  of  the  normal  gain  in  height*  As  the 
experiment  progressed  the  animals  fed  soybean  hay  were  easily  distin- 
guished by  their  vigorous  appearance  and  smooth,  sleek  coats  of  hair. 
Lot  II  made  average  daily  gains  of  0.59  pounds  which  is  only  39.47  per  cent 
of  normal  gain  in  weight  for  this  age.  Their  average  gain  in  height  was 
only  8.33  cm.  during  the  period  which  is  only  45.09  per  cent  of  the  normal 
gain.  For  some  reason  not  yet  determined  the  calves  in  Lot  II  did  not  eat 
alfalfa  in  as  large  quantity  as  previously  even  though  the  amount  of  grain 
was  limited  to  five  pounds  a day.  This  seems  to  be  the  limiting  factor  in 
their  growth  rather  than  the  fact  that  soybean  meal  replaced  the  oil  meal 
in  the  grain  mixture. 

Factors  Affecting  the  Composition  of  Milk. — Factors  Influencing  the 
Per  Cent  and  Quantity  of  Milk  of  Cows  on  Official  Test  (A.  C.  Ragsdale, 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


23 


W.  W.  Swett). — During  the  winter  1919-20,  six  cows  were  selected  from 
the  dairy  herd.  They  were  divided  into  two  groups,  each  group  containing 
one  Jersey,  one  Holstein,  and  one  Ayrshire.  They  were  not  fresh  but  were 
in  the  first  half  of  their  lactation  period. 

Group  one  showed  a very  decided  increase  of  fat  in  milk  when  the 
ration  was  reduced  one-half.  The  high  point  occurred  either  the  second  or 
third  day  after  the  reduction  was  made  and  almost  immediately  dropped 
back  toward  normal  and  remained  considerable  above  normal  the  rest  of 
the  period.  As  soon  as  the  cows  of  this  group  were  put  back  on  full  feed, 
the  test  in  each  case  went  down  very  rapidly  and  remained  considerably 
below  normal  during  the  entire  ten  day  period.  The  daily  average  tests 
fluctuated  considerably;  but  the  result  in  every  case  was  a rapid  rise  in  test 
when  feed  was  cut  to  half,  followed  by  a rapid  drop  in  test  when  full  feed 
was  again  furnished.  The  amount  of  milk  varied  almost  directly  with  the 
amount  of  feed  given.  Body  temperatures  were  taken  three  times  each 
day.  The  changes  did  not  have  any  appreciable  effect  on  these  tempera- 
tures. Group  II  did  not  show  any  noticeable  change  when  the  amount  of 
protein  was  reduced  from  50  per  cent  excess  to  50  per  cent  of  requirements 
by  a sudden  change  in  the  character  of  the  ration.  Neither  was  the  test 
affected  when  the  ration  was  again  put  back  to  the  preliminary  ration  which 
furnished  slightly  above  requirements  in  both  protein  and  energy. 

In  order  to  check  Group  II  and  Group  I,  the  cows  were  cut  to  a ration 
furnishing  exactly  one-half  requirements  in  both  protein  and  energy.  The 
effect  was  not  quite  as  extreme  as  with  Group  I but  checked  fairly  well 
with  it.  The  quantity  of  milk  produced  by  cows  in  Group  II  showed  a 
tendency  to  drop  only  slightly  while  the  cows  were  on  excessive  protein,  to 
drop  appreciably  and  steadily  while  the  protein  was  50  per  cent  of  require- 
ments, to  steadily  increase  as  the  full  feed  was  reduced  and  to  drop  again 
decidedly  when  the  entire  ration  was  cut  to  half  requirements  in  the  last 
period.  The  body  temperature  was  not  affected  by  any  of  the  manipula- 
tions of  the  tests. 

Protein  Requirements  for  Growth  (W.  W.  Swett,  A.  C.  Ragsdale). — 
Practically  no  difference  in  the  results  this  year  have  been  noticed  between 
the  Holstein  and  Jersey  breeds.  They  seem  to  adjust  themselves  quite 
well  to  new  experimental  conditions  and  rations.  All  of  the  animals  on 
experiment  during  the  year  have  been  on  a mixed  ration  made  up  of  com- 
mon dairy  feeds,  except  that  starch  was  used  in  varying  amounts  to  help 
balance  the  ration  by  furnishing  energy.  Two  animals  have  been  on  a 
35  per  cent  protein  plane.  One  of  these  was  a Holstein  and  one  was  a 
Jersey.  In  neither  case,  was  normal  growth  secured.  Apparently  this  is  an 
excess  of  protein  which  cannot  be  used  by  the  animals  in  promoting  growth. 
The  animals  used  during  the  year  have  been  slightly  above  normal  in  size. 
The  average  figures  reported  indicate  that  on  the  average  101.4  per  cent 
of  normal  in  weight  and  100.6  per  cent  of  normal  in  skeleton  measurements. 
Increases  in  the  ration  in  some  cases  have  been  brought  about  by  increasing 
the  protein  and  in  other  cases  by  leaving  the  protein  unchanged  and  giving 
an  excess  of  energy  ranging  from  15  to  50  per  cent  above  the  requirements. 

Silage  Investigation  (A.  C.  Ragsdale,  C.  W.  Turner). — Studies  on  the 


24  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


comparison  of  loss  of  nutrients  in  the  silo  and  in  the  field  have  been  con- 
tinued during  the  past  year. 

The  corn  was  cut  in  September,  1919,  and  at  that  time  adjoining  rows 
were  used.  A certain  number  of  rows  were  cut  and  shocked  in  the  field. 
To  protect  them  from  loss,  they  were  screened  in  by  and  surrounded  by  a 
12-inch  plank  buried  in  the  ground  to  keep  out  the  birds  and  rodents.  The 
weather  during  the  year  was  about  average. 

Silo  No.  2 showed  a loss  of  3.06  per  cent  in  weight.  The  loss  in  No.  1, 
14.84  per  cent  was  greater,  due  probably  to  the  fact  that  the  silage  was 
spoiled  down  six  to  eight  inches  below  the  wire. 

The  ensilage  in  silo  No.  3 composed  of  corn  and  soybeans  grown  to- 
gether showed  a loss  in  weight  of  5.22  per  cent.  Silo  No.  4 filled  with 
stover  from  Learning  corn  sustained  a loss  of  only  1.83  per  cent  of  its- 
weight.  The  average  per  cent  of  loss  of  the  four  silos  was  6.24. 

The  Effect  of  Each  Ingredient  in  the  Manufacture  of  Ice  Cream  (Wm. 
H.  E.  Reid). — This  project  necessitated  the  erecting  of  considerable  new 
equipment.  This  equipment  was  constructed  and  set  up  and  has  proved 
very  efficient.  Ice  cream  freezers  were  constructed  which  would  freeze 
four  batches  of  ice  cream  at  the  same  time,  under  the  same  conditions.  Ap- 
paratus for  determining  the  hardness  of  the  ice  cream  when  varied  amounts 
of  one  or  more  ingredients,  were  used.  A viscosity  determinator  was  used 
in  making  the  comparison  of  the  heaviness  and  lightness  of  each  mixture 
in  the  experiment,  and  for  determining  the  standard  melting  period  a melt- 
ing vat  with  a galvanized  iron  water  jacket  on  the  outside.  The  following 
problems  were  completed: 

1.  Uniformity  of  Maximum  Overrun  at  Different  Brine  Temperatures. 
— A series  of  freezings  were  made  to  show  that  the  amount  of  sugar  added 
to  the  mixture  has  a direct  relation  to  the  ultimate  swell  or  overrun  of  the 
finished  ice  cream.  Five  different  mixtures  were  used,  the  percentage  of 
sugar  varying  from  8 to  16  per  cent.  In  order  that  the  relation  of  the 
temperature  of  the  brine  to  the  maximum  swell  might  be  made  plain,  two 
different  brine  temperatures  were  made. 

The  increase  of  sugar  gave  an  increase  of  time  required  to  freeze,  which 
proved  to  be  greater  with  the  higher  percentages  than  with  a lower  per- 
centage of  sugar.  Increase  of  sugar  content  from  10  to  12  per  cent  changed 
freezing  time  from  15  to  16  minutes;  while  raising  sugar  content  from  14 
to  16  per  cent  resulted  in  an  increase  in  time  to  freeze  of  from  18  to  23 
minutes.  There  was  an  increase  of  4.3  per  cent  in  overrun  of  the  mixture 
containing  12  per  cent  sugar  over  that  of  mixture  containing  but  8 per  cent 
sugar.  A loss  of  4.3  per  cent  was  noted  in  comparing  mixtures  containing 
12  to  16  per  cent  sugar,  due  to  the  use  of  an  excessive  amount  of  sugar. 
Maximum  swell  obtained  when  12  per  cent  of  sugar  was  added  to  the  mix- 
ture. 

Freezing  with  the  brine  at  26  degrees  F.  gave  practically  parallel  results 
with  those  obtained  when  freezing  with  the  brine  at  a temperature  of  23 
degrees  F.  except  that  the  higher  brine  temperature  retarded  the  time  of 
freezing.  The  temperature  of  the  finished  ice  cream  lowered  as  the  per- 
centage of  sugar  was  increased,  showing  that  additional  sugar  lowers  the 
freezing  point.  The  difference  in  temperature  of  brine  did  not  affect  the 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


25 


relative  curve  of  the  maximum  swell.  Sugar  was  the  principal  factor 
influencing  the  swell  of  the  mixture. 

2.  The  Effect  of  Increased  Percentages  of  Sugar  on  the  Hardness  of 

Ice  Cream. — It  was  noted  that  there  was  a gradual  increase  in  the  depth 

of  penetration  with  each  additional  2 per  cent  of  sugar.  The  depth  of 

penetration  when  16  per  cent  sugar  was  added  to  the  mixture  was  nearly 
double  to  that  secured  when  8 per  cent  of  sugar  was  used.  The  greatest 

resistance  was  offered  when  8 per  cent  sugar  was  added  to  the  mixture, 

the  least  when  16  per  cent  was  added.  The  addition  of  syrup  to  the  mixture 
gave  a resistance  equal  to  the  resistance  offered  when  10  per  cent  of  sugar 
was  added. 

3.  Determination  of  the  Time  Required  for  Creams  With  Different  Per- 
centages of  Sugar  to  Melt  Under  Summer  Conditions. — A constant  melt- 
ing temperature  was  maintained.  Tempering  each  brick  eliminated  any 
error  that  would  enter  in  case  the  bricks  were  not  of  uniform  temperature. 
Percentage  loss  in  the  case  of  the  brick  containing  16  per  cent  sugar  was 
12  per  cent  greater  than  that  in  the  8 per  cent  sample.  One  outstanding 
result  is  the  direct  correlation  in  the  melting  of  the  brick  with  8 per  cent 
sugar  plus  4 per  cent  syrup  and  the  brick  with  12  per  cent  sugar  only.  Con- 
cluded that  a brick  of  ice  cream  retaining  greatest  weight  following  the 
standard  melting  period  of  four  hours  had  the  highest  melting  resistence  and 
proved  best  adapted  for  commercial  use.  A sugar  content  increased  above 
10  per  cent  weakened  the  body  of  the  ice  cream.  Ice  cream  containing  10 
per  cent  sugar  had  the  best  holding-up  qualities.  One  brick  of  each  was 
secured  at  the  end  of  the  first  and  seventh  days,  during  which  time  the 
bricks  were  held  at  a constant  temperature.  Settling  out  of  sugar  increased 
with  each  additional  increment  of  sugar. 

Notes:  There  was  a direct  relation  between  the  percentage  of  sugar 

added  to  a mixture  and  the  hardness  of  the  finished  ice  cream.  The  addi- 
tion of  syrup  to  the  mixture  gave  the  ice  cream  a greater  resisting  power. 
The  quantity  of  sugar  used  in  a mixture  determined  the  length  of  time  the 
ice  cream  would  hold  up  when  exposed  to  summer  temperatures.  Ten  per 
cent  of  sugar  gave  an  ice  cream  that  offered  the  maximum  resistance  to  a 
standard  summer  temperature.  Syrup  has  a resisting  power  equal  to  that 
of  sugar.  When  14  per  cent  and  16  per  cent  was  added  to  the  mixture,  the 
resisting  power  was  greatly  reduced,  offering  the  least  resisting  power  of 
all  batches.  Each  additional  per  cent  of  sugar  added  to  the  mixture  lessened 
its  factor  of  resistance.  If  ice  cream  is  to  be  held  for  several  days,  the  addi- 
tion of  syrup  will  retard  the  settling  out  of  fat  and  sugar.  Syrup  should 
not  be  used  in  quantities  larger  than  4 per  cent  because  of  its  giving  to  the 
ice  cream  a syrupy  and  bitter  flavor. 

The  Effect  of  Each  of  the  Normal  Constituents  of  Butter  Upon  Its 
Keeping  Qualities  (A.  C.  Dahlberg,  Percy  Werner). — The  purpose  of  this 
experiment  is  to  locate  in  which  constituents  the  off-flavors  in  butter  de- 
velope,  and  if  possible  to  determine  the  factors  in  butter  to  lessen  the  pro- 
duction of  these  off-flavors.  A high  quality  butter  was  prepared,  primarily 
of  butter  fat  and  water.  The  keeping  quality  of  the  fat  could  thus  be  ob- 
tained and  each  normal  ingredient  of  butter  could  then  be  introduced  at 


26  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


one  time,  and  its  effect  noted.  Four  samples  of  cream  were  treated  as 
follows: 

1.  Normal  cream  not  treated  in  any  way. 

2.  One  part  cream  diluted  with  10  parts  water  and  separated  at  a tem- 
perature of  40  degrees  F.  A fat  test  on  the  skimmilk  part  showed  an  ex- 
cessive fat  loss  and  the  temperature  had  to  be  raised  to  avoid  this.  The 
separated  cream  was  again  diluted  one-tenth  and  separated  at  100  degrees  F. 
The  separated  cream  was  again  diluted  one-tenth  and  separated  a fourth 
time  at  100  degrees  F.  The  skimmilk  now  appeared  almost  as  clear  as 
water  and  the  cream  looked  like  an  oil  emulsion. 

3.  Treated  like  No.  2 except  that  it  was  diluted  and  separated  only 
twice  each  time  at  100  degrees  F. 

4.  Treated  like  No.  3 but  diluted  one  part  cream  to  15  parts  water, 
and  the  cream  screw  of  the  separator  was  turned  in  enough  to  give  the  de- 
sired richness  of  cream.  The  object  of  this  greater  dilution  was  to  get  a 
more  thorough  washing  out  of  the  solids  not  fat.  The  results  show  that  the 
unaltered  butter  had  the  best  keeping  quality  and  batch  No.  2 had  the  poor- 
est. These  results  are  due  to  the  increased  air  content  of  the  butter.  But- 
ter from  batch  No.  3 and  4 was  somewhat  mottled. 


ENTOMOLOGY 

An  Investigatoin  of  the  Hessian  Fly  Resistant  Qualities  of  Different 
Varieties  of  Wheat  (L.  Haseman,  S.  R.  McLane). — The  following  varieties 
were  grown  in  drill  width  plots  in  the  fields  here  at  Columbia  to  check  up 
further  on  the  results  secured  last  year  in  the  insectory. 

Ziegler’s  Choice  Turkey 

Kanred  Poole 

Fultz 


The  percentage  of  fall  fly  infestation  was  determined  in  November  and 
the  yield  has  just  recently  been  determined,  as  follows: 


Variety 

Ziegler’s  Choice 

Kanred 

Turkey 

Poole 

Fultz 


Fall  Infestation 

0. 

2.6  % 

1.5  % 

1.8  % 

0.05  % 


Acreage  Yield 

22  bu. 

28  bu. 

20  bu. 

24  bu. 

23  bu. 


The  infestations  at  Columbia  were  light  this  past  year  which  accounts 
for  the  low  infestation  records.  In  earlier  experiments  Kanred  and  Turkey 
have  shown  high  susceptibility,  Poole  and  Fultz  average  susceptibility  and 
Ziegler’s  choice  slight  susceptibility. 

Past  results  show  clearly  that  the  different  strains  of  wheat  vary  great- 
ly as  regards  susceptibility  to  fly  attack.  During  the  year  we  have  been 
trying  to  determine  what  chemical,  physical  or  physiological  factors  pos- 
sessed by  the  wheat  plant  influence  susceptibility.  A study  is  being  made 
including  the  anatomy  and  glandular  secretions  of  the  fly  larva  and  the 
cellular  response  of  the  wheat  plant  to  the  work  of  the  larva.  The  resistant 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


27 


strains  receive  an  abundant  supply  of  fly  eggs  but  later  few  or  no  flies 
mature  from  these  eggs  while  six  inches  away  on  a susceptible  strain  the 
fly  matures  abundantly.  It  seems  entirely  likely  that  some  common  factor 
will  be  found  to  be  responsible  for  this  and  that  varietal  resistance  may  be 
utilized  in  field  in  fly  control. 

The  following  table  shows  clearly  the  relative  susceptibility  of  a num- 
ber of  common  strains  as  determined  from  a large  series  of  plantings  in  the 
insectory  a year  ago. 


Variety 

Per  cent 
plants  with 
eggs 

No.  eggs  to 
100  plants 

Per  cent 
infestation 

No.  flax 
seeds  to 
100  plants 

Illinois  Chief  

39 

78 

5 

6 

Zieglers’  Choice  

37 

7 

14 

Mediterranean  

37 

79 

10 

18 

Beechwood  Hybrid  .... 

28 

48 

14 

22 

Michigan  Wonder  

48 

102 

14 

23 

Fulcaster  

50 

120 

14 

23 

Dietz  

53 

255 

18 

48 

Fultz  

47 

If  6 

20 

32 

Michigan  Amber  

41 

176 

23 

42 

Currell  

27 

47 

Turkey  

45 

151 

28 

46 

Dawson  Golden  Chaff 

30 

44 

Nigger  

30 

56 

Kharkov  

33 

56 

Early  Ripe  

-47 

94 

Fultz-Mediterranean  ... 

49 

135 

Miracle  

.... 

50 

93 

An  Investigation  to  Determine  the  Life  History,  Development  and 
Habits  of  the  Com  Ear  Worm  and  Practical  Methods  of  Controlling  Its 
Ravages  (L.  Haseman,  K.  C.  Sullivan,  S.  R.  McLane). — Ten  varieties  of 
field  corn,  one  variety  of  pop  corn  and  two  varieties  of  sweet  corn  were 
each  treated  with  the  solution  of  lead  arsenate  (1  pound  dry  arsenate  to 
50  gallons  of  water).  Other  plants  of  these  varieties  were  dusted  with 
equal  parts  of  dry  arsenate  of  lead  and  hydrated  lime.  Others  were  left 
untreated  as  a check.  These  treatments  did  not  give  any  special  results. 

The  Annual  Life  Cycle  of  the  Hessian  Fly  in  Missouri  and  Its  Control 
(L.  Haseman,  K.  C.  Sullivan,  S.  R.  McLane). — Outlying  plots  have  been 
maintained  at  Maryville  on  the  grounds  of  the  State  Teachers’  College;  at 
Kirksville  on  the  ground  of  the  State  Teachers’  College;  at  Springfield  by 
Mr.  Bennett,  at  Lebanon  by  Mr.  Johnson;  at  Webster  Groves  by  Mr. 
Christ  Toft  and  at  Altenburg  by  Mr.  Jacobs.  With  the  exception  of  the 
plots  at  Kirksville,  valuable  data  have  been  secured  this  year  from  each  of 
the  outlying  fields  and  from  the  plots  at  Columbia.  From  six  to  eight  seed- 
lings at  intervals  of  a week  were  made. 

In  November  from  each  plot  25  linear  yards  of  wheat  plants  were  col- 
lected and  examined  to  determine  fall  infestation.  In  every  case,  plots 
seeded  on  or  after  the  fly-free  date  showed  no'  effective1  fall  fly  infestation. 


28  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Owing  to  the  early  ripening  and  cutting  of  the  plots  at  Centerview, 
Altenburg  and  Charleston  no  samples  were  secured  to  determine  the  yield 
as  affected  by  the  date  of  seeding  last  summer. 

Maryville  Plots : — The  plot  No.  2 seeded  two  weeks  before  the  fly  free 
date  gave  the  maximum  yield  tho  it  was  but  slightly  larger  than  that  from 
plot  No.  4 seeded  on  the  fly  free  date. 

Carrollton  Plots : — The  maximum  yield  came  from  plot  No.  3 seeded 
one  week  before  the  fly  free  date  and  from  plot  No.  6 seeded  two  weeks 
after  the  fly  free  date.  Plot  No.  1 seeded  three  weeks  before  the  fly  free 
date  gave  the  minimum  yield. 

Columbia  Plots : — Plot  No.  3 seeded  one  week  before  the  fly  free  date 
gave  the  maximum  yield  being  considerably  more  than  that  from  both 
earlier  and  later  seedings. 

Springfield  Plots : — The  maximum  yield  came  from  plot  No.  6 seeded 
two  weeks  after  the  fly  free  date.  It  was  considerably  more  than  the  yield 
from  plots  No.  3 and  No.  5 the  next  heavier  yielding  plots,  seeded  respec- 
tively one  week  before  and  one  week  after  the  fly  free  date. 

Lebanon  Plots : — The  yields  from  these  plots  were  small  beginning  with 
plot  No.  1 and  gradually  decreasing  in  amounts  until  plot  no  6 seeded 
two  weeks  after  the  fly  free  date. 

The  results  of  this  year’s  work  largely  substantiate  earlier  results. 

A Study  of  the  Life  Cycle  of  the  Codling  Moth  and  the  Best  Time  and 
Method  of  Applying  Insecticides  for  Controlling  It  (L.  Haseman,  S.  R. 
McLane). — Chemical  tests  for  amounts  of  arsenate  of  lead  placed  in  calyx 
cups  by  using  different  nozzles  and  pressures  were  made.  The  pressures 
were  of  100,  150  and  200  pounds.  A spray  gun,  a Bordeaux  nozzle  and  a 
Disc  nozzle  were  used.  After  applying  the  spray,  young  apples  were  col- 
lected and  prepared  for  determining  first  which  treatment  places  most 
poison  in  the  outer  calyx  cup  and  which  most  in  the  inner  calyx  cup.  The 
following  table  gives  the  results  of  these  trials: 


Nozzle 

Pressure 

Number  of 
Cups 

Outer  Cup 
Poison,  % 

Inner  Cup 
Poison,  % 

Gun  

250  lbs. 

450 

24.610 

1.128 

Bordeaux  

250  lbs. 

400 

16.184 

1.353 

Disc  

250  lbs. 

410 

20.852 

1.006 

Gun  

150  lbs. 

450 

15.066 

1.627 

Bordeaux  

150  lbs. 

450 

20.635 

1.013 

Disc  

150  lbs. 

450 

9.756 

1.249 

Gun  

100  lbs. 

250 

12.645 

0.510 

Bordeaux  

100  lbs. 

250 

8.635 

1.433 

Disc  

100  lbs. 

250 

7.800 

2.660 

From  these  results  it  is  apparent,  as  our  earlier  results  also  show,  that 
very  high  pressure  and  a coarse  nozzle  is  not  necessary  for  placing  the  poi- 
son down  in  the  inner  calyx  cup.  A pressure  of  from  75  to  150  pounds  and 
a reasonably  fine  mist  nozzle  like  the  Disc  will  place  as  much  or  more 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


29 


poison  in  the  inner  calyx  cup  than  a higher  pressure  and  a coarser  nozzle. 
This  does  not  agree  with  much  of  the  earlier  writings  and  theories  regard- 
ing spraying  but  repeated  careful  experiments  both  in  Missouri  and  New 
York  including  chemical  tests  of  the  contents  of  cups  of  sprayed  blossoms 
convince  us  that  this  is  true. 

Life  History  of  Codling  Moth. — In  connection  with  the  life  history 
work  it  has  been  found  that  in  a cool  cellar  the  overwintering  apple  worms 
may  be  prevented  from  maturing  until  July  first  following:  the  moth  com- 
ing out  with  the  normal  July  or  second  brood  of  moths. 

An  Investigation  to  Determine  What  Insects  Are  Injurious  to  Nurs- 
ery Stock  in  This  State,  Their  Life  Histories,  Distribution,  Injury  and 
Methods  of  Control  (L.  Haseman,  K.  C.  Sullivan,  S.  R.  McLane.) — ian  Jose 
Scale. — The  spring  and  summer  months  of  1919  were  very  favorable  for  the 
development  of  San  Jose  scale.  The  Experimental  Nursery  at  Columbia, 
Missouri,  showed  a decided  increase  in  the  number  and  the  distribution 
of  the  pest.  As  a result  of  the  favorable  season  for  scale,  eight  nurseries 
were  found  infested  in  1919. 

Other  Insects. — The  wooly  aphis  ranks  second  to  the  San  Jose  scale  as  a 
destructive  pest  to  nursery  stock  in  Missouri.  Fifteen  nurseries  were  found 
infested  with  this  insect. 

The  growth  of  apple  trees  in  thirty  nurseries  was  hindered  considerably 
by  the  work  of  the  apple  leaf  hopper.  Apple  tree  and  peach  tree  borers 
were  found  in  four  nurseries.  Thirteen  strawberry  beds  were  slightly  dam- 
aged by  the  strawberry  leaf  roller.  The  strawberry  crown  borer  was 
doing  extensive  injury  to  five  old  strawberry  beds.  Eight  nurseries  were 
found  slightly  damaged  by  the  tarnished  plant  bug.  Bag  worms  were 
found  in  eleven  nurseries. 

Other  insects  found  doing  only  a small  amount  of  damage  were:  grape 
leaf  folder,  fall  web  worm,  canker  worm,  Forbes  scale,  oystershell  scale, 
grasshoppers,  and  catalpa  sphinx  moth. 

Thirteen  Year  Cicada. — Inspectors  this  year  expect  to  find  a few 
nurseries  which  are  located  in  wooden  districts  to  be  damaged  to  a more 
or  less  extent  by  the  thirteen  year  cicada,  the  distribution  of  which  was 
widespread  throughout  Missouri  during  the  spring  moths  of  1920. 

Foreign  Inspection. — Three  nests  of  brown  tail  moth,  one  of  the  most 
destructive  pests  to  trees  and  shrubs,  were  found  in  a shipment  of  nursery 
stock  from  France.  These  nests  of  caterpillars  were  carefully  destroyed  in 
order  that  there  would  be  no  chance  for  the  insect  to  gain  a foothold  in 
Missouri. 

Bag  worms  were  found  in  three  foreign  shipments  of  stock. 

Several  specimens  of  Epidiaspis  piricola  were  found  in  one  shipment. 
Six  cases  of  narcissus  bulbs  were  infested  with  mites. 

Injurious  Insect  Pests  of  Melon  and  Related  Crops  (L.  Haseman). — 
Tests  of  insecticides  were  made  only  in  controlling  the  striped  cucumber 
beetle  and  the  melon  louse. 

Striped  Cucumber  Beetle. — By  keeping  the  young  plants  dusted  with 
dry  arsenate  of  lead  from  the  time  the  plants  come  up  until  they  began  to 
vine  this  pest  was  effectively  controlled.  Likewise  one  tablespoon  of  dry 
arsenate  of  lead  to  one  gallon  of  water  or  one  pound  to  fifty  gallons  of 


30  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


water  used  as  a spray  gave  equally  good  results.  By  supplementing  the 
use  of  arsenate  of  lead,  with  hand  picking  in  this  morning,  when  the  beetles 
are  less  active,  soon  after  the  beetles  first  begin  to  attack  the  plants,  much 
better  results  were  obtained  than  where  the  insecticide  alone  was  used. 

Melon  Louse. — The  louse  feeding  by  extracting  sap  from  the  plant 
is  not  affected  by  arsenical  insecticides  though  a contract  spray  readily 
controls  it.  Nicotine  sulphate  has  proved  most  effective.  When  used  at 
the  rate  of  one  tablespoon  to  one  gallon  of  water  or  one  part  to  five  hun- 
dred parts  of  water  the  pest  is  quickly  controlled.  Soap  added  to  the  solu- 
tion makes  it  work  more  quickly,  however,  the  local  hard  water  makes  the 
nicotine  sulphate  sufficiently  volatile  to  kill  both  by  contact  and  as  fumes. 

FIELD  CROPS 

A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  of  Corn  for 
Missouri  Conditions  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A.  Helm).— The  only  important 
feature  of  the  1919  studies  of  the  adaptatoin  of  varieties  of  corn  was  the 
comparison  of  the  Southern  prolific  varieties  with  some  of  the  leading 
“native”  varieties,  in  Southwest  Missouri.  The  results  of  last  year  and  the 
two  preceding  years  in  the  comparison  of  these  varieties  follow: 


Variety 

Yields  in  bushels 

of  grain  per  acre 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Average 

Prolific  types 

Biggs  Seven-ear 

37.9 

13.9 

21.0 

24.3 

Cocke  Prolific  

31.3 

17.1 

24.2* 

Sanders  Improved  .... 

26.1 

16.0 

21.1* 

Native  types 

Commeicial  White  .... 

31.1 

14.3 

23.3 

22.9 

Reid  Yellow  Dent  

31.6 

12.2 

23.3 

22.4 

St.  Charles  White  .... 

29.6 

12.0 

22.0 

21.2 

^Partial  average. 


Of  the  prolific  varieties  tested  Biggs  Seven-ear  is  the  only  one  to  com- 
pare favorably,  on  the  average,  with  the  best  of  the  native  varieties.  How- 
ever, the  results  of  several  additional  seasons  are  required  to  decide  the 
status  of  this  promising  variety. 

A Study  of  Certain  Spring,  Summer  and  Fall  Sown  Crops  for  Forage 

(W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A.  Helm). — In  1919,  trials  of  seasonal  forages  were 
carried  on  at  Warrensburg.  They  gave  the  following  results: 


Spring  Sown 


Yields — tons  of  cured 
forage  per  acre 


Oats  and  Canada  Peas  . 3.27 

Oats  and  Spring  Vetch  3.01 

Canada  Peas  and  Spring  Vetch  2.47 

Summer  Sown 

Sudan-grass  and  Soybeans  1.93 

Sorghum  and  Soybeans  3.38 

Corn  and  Soybeans  2.61 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


31 


Investigations  in  forage  productions  will  for  most  crops  be  concluded 
at  the  end  of  the  present  season. 

Wheat  Breeding  Investigations  Including  the  Improvement  of  Com- 
mercial Varieties  by  the  Pure  Line  Methods  of  Breeding  and  Hybridization 
and  Subsequent  Selection  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  L.  J.  Stadler).  Hybrids  and 
pure-line  selections  made  here  are  yearly  compared  with  a large  number  of 
other  hybrids,  selections  and  commercial  varieties.  By  yearly  elimination 
«of  the  less  worthy  kinds,  the  better  strains  are  rapidly  being  narrowed  to 
small  group.  Seed  of  a few  superior  strains  are  now  being  increased  for 
a wider  test  in  various  parts  of  the  State. 

The  comparative  value  of  some  of  the  selected  strains  is  illustrated  by 
the  following  yields  of  two  strains  of  the  variety  “Mediterranean.” 

Average  yield  per  acre 
1914-1919 


Mediterranean  30  (Selection)  31.7  bu. 

Mediterranean  31  (Selection)  32.7  bu. 

Mediterranean  (original  stock)  24.0  bu. 


A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  and  Selections  of 
Soybeans  to  the  Various  Soil  Types  of  the  State  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A. 
Helm). — Thirty  varieties  and  selected  strains  of  soybeans  were  tested  at 
Columbia  in  1918.  Some  of  the  most  promising  of  these  were  tested  also 
at  Maryville,  Warrensburg,  Kirksville  and  Cuba.  The  yields  of  the  six 
leading  varieties  at  Columbia  were  as  follows: 


Varieties 

Bushels  of  seed 

Varieties 

Tons  of  cured 

per  acre 

hay  per  acre 

Tokio'  

23.3 

Chiquita  

3.3 

Mikado  

20.5 

Columbia  

3.0 

Morse  

20.5 

Taha  

3.0 

Chiquita  

20.4 

Virginia  

2.6 

Shingto  

20.1 

Arlington  

2.6 

Sable  

19.9 

Morse  

2.6 

At  the  outlying  fields  the  following  acre  yields  were  made: 


Varieties 

Maryville 

Cuba 

Warrensburg 

Kirksville 

Bu.  of 
Seed 

Tons  df 
Hay 

Bu.  of 
Seed 

Tons  of 
Hay 

Bu.  of 
Seed 

Tons  of 
Hay 

Bu.  of 
Seed 

Tons,  of 
Hay 

Wilson  

24.5 

1.9 

2.5 

.2 

19.8 

2.4 

22.0 

1.3 

Virginia  

23.1 

1.9 

2.9 

.3 

15.8 

1.8 

17.0 

1.4 

Morse  

27.7 

1.7 

2.3 

.2 

15.8 

1.3 

18.0 

1.8 

Medium  Yellow  . . 

30.1 

2.2. 

2.7 

.4 

12.9 

2.0 

15.0 

1.2 

Mikado  

27.6 

1.8 

2.5 

.2 

10.5 

1.3 

26.0 

1.4 

Cultural  Experiments  With  Cotton  (W.  C.  Etheridge). — In  1919  the 
fertilizer  treatment  of  cotton  was  renewed  in  connection  with  a cropping 
system  of  corn,  cotton  and  legumes.  The  fertilizer  was  applied  to  cotton 
on  land  which  in  1918  grew  a crop  of  cowpeas  (harvested  for  hay)  and  a 


32  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179' 


crop  of  fall  sown  rye  (turned  under  in  the  spring).  The  following  yields 
resulted: 


Fertilizer  Treatement 
per  acre 


Pounds  of  Lint 
per  acre 


300  lbs.  Acid  Phosphate  644.6 

35  lbs.  Potassium  Chloride  

No  fertilizer  589.1 

300  lbs.  Acid  Phosphate  653.2 

200  lbs.  Acid  Phosphate  578.3 


Cultural  Experiments  With  Corn  (W.  C.  Etheridge). — The  investiga- 
tion of  cultural  methods  for  corn  was  continued  in  1919  at  the  Maryville  and 
Warrensburg  fields.  The  season  was  favorable  for  corn  and  at  each  field 
the  yields  were  above  the  average  of  the  locality.  The  following  data 
show  the  relation  between  the  method  of  cultivation  and  the  yield: 


Treatment  of  the  Crop 

Yield  in 

bushels  of 

grain 

per  acre 

Maryville 

Warrensburg: 

Four  Normal  Cultivations  

47.2 

21.4 

Four  Normal  Cultivations  and  two  later 

Cultivations  

43.0 

16.8 

Four  Deep  Cultivations  

47.1 

23.6 

No  Normal  Cultivation,  but  the  surface 
was  scraped  clean  thruout  the  grow- 

ing  season  

55.9 

30.4 

There  are  two  important  results  here;  low  yields  from  late  cultivation,, 
high  yields  from  surface  scraping.  The  first  may  be  explained  by  the  rea- 
sonable assumption  that  late  cultivations  tore  out  many  of  the  surface 
roots.  The  second  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  surface  scraping  kept 
the  crop  entirely  free  from  all  extraneous  plant  growth  during  the  growing 
season. 

Comparison  of  Soybeans  and  Cowpeas  for  Hay  and  Seed  Production 

(C.  A.  Helm). — Comparisons  of  the  soybean  and  cowpea  crops  for  hay  and 
seed  in  1919,  as  in  previous  years  show  strongly  the  superiority  of  the  soy- 
bean for  both  purposes.  Yields  of  the  leading  varieties  in  each  group- 
here  follow: 


Hay  Yield  per  acre 

Wilson  Soybeans  2.23  tons 

Morse  Soybeans  2.11  tons 

Whippoorwill  Cowpeas  1.30  tons 

Red  Ripper  Cowpeas  99  tons 

Seed 

Medium  Yellow  Soybeans  23.8  bu. 

New  Era  Cowpeas  - 21.9  bu. 


A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  of  Wheat  for 
Missouri  Conditions  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A.  Helm). — In  1919  tests  of  a 
few  commercial  varieties  of  wheat  were  conducted  at  Maryville,  Warrens- 
burg and  Cuba.  A comparison  of  spring  wheat,  hard  winter  wheat  and 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


33 


soft  winter  wheat,  was  made  at  Maryville;  of  hard  winter  and  soft  winter 
wheat  at  Warrensburg;  and  soft  winter  and  spring  wheat  at  Columbia.  The 
following  were  the  results: 


Variety 

Yield 

in  bushels  of 

grain  per  acre 

Maryville 

Warrensburg 

Cuba 

Columbia 

HARD  WINTER 

Kanred  

24.0 

10.4 

SOFT  WINTER 

Fulcaster  

24.0 

16.3 

7.07 

28.7 

Michigan  Wonder  

21.5 

Fultz  

13.6 

7.6 

Poole  

16.9 

9.6 

Red  Wave 

7.2 

Rudy  

13.2 

Mediterranean  

14.4 

SPRING 

Scotch  Fife  

11.3 

8.9 

Marquis  

23.8 

9.6 

From  these  data  the  following  indications  may  be  set  forth: 

(1) .  The  superiority  of  the  hard  winter  sort,  Kanred,  and  the  semi- 
hard  sort,  Fulcaster,  over  the  soft  wheat,  Michigan  Wonder,  and  the  spring 
wheats,  Scotch  Fife  and  Marquis. 

(2)  The  inferiority  of  Kanred  at  Warrensburg. 

(3)  The  very  marked  inferiority  of  spring  wheat  at  Columbia  and 
Maryville. 

Among  the  large  number  of  varieties  of  soft  winter  wheat  tested  on  a 
nursery  scale  for  the  part  six  years  at  Columbia,  the  following  are’  the  lead- 
ers in  yield: 

Average  yield  in 

Variety  bushels  per  acre 

1914-1919  inclusive 


Mediterranean  31  32.7 

Mediterranean  30  31.7 

Harvest  Queen  : 31.6 

Fulcaster  8-y  31.2 

Average  of  all  varieties  26.1 


A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  of  Cotton  for  the 
Southeast  Missouri  Lowlands  (C.  A.  Helm).— Eight  important  varieties  of 
cotton  were  compared  in  the  season  of  1919.  They  included  three  distinct 
types — (1)  late,  big  boll,  (2)  early,  small  boll  and  (3)  long  staple.  Yields 
by  these  groups  were  as  follows: 


Big  Boll  Pounds  of  Lint 

per  acre 

Cook  Improved  625.3 

Mebane  Triumph  482.7 

Cleveland  330.7 

Rowden  272.7 

Average  427.9 


34  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 
Small  Boll 


Trice  501.1 

Simpkin  Prolific  475.0 

King  Improved  291.8 

Average  422.6 

Long  Staple 

Weber  49  158.2 


The  difference  between  the  yields  of  the  big  boll  and  small  boll  groups 
is  not  significant.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  four  leading  varieties  among  the 
eight  tested,  are  divided  equally  between  the  two  groups.  The  extremely 
early  small  boll  King  Improved  undoubtedly  lost  a large  part  of  its  yield 
through  a failure  to  pick  the  crop  at  the  proper  time.  This  variety  though 
normally  a good  yielder  will  not  strongly  hold  its  seed-cotton  in  the  fully 
open  bolls.  Consequently  when  last  season  a shortage  of  labor  'made  nec- 
essary a delay  in  picking  until  all  varieties  had  matured  their  entire  crop. 
King  Improved  was  at  a serious  disadvantage,  for  it  had  matured  and  lost 
a considerable  part  of  its  crop  before  the  late  varieties  were  ready. 

Weber,  49,  the  single  variety  to  represent  the  long  staple  group  gave 
an  extremely  low  yield. 

Factors  Influencing  the  Development  of  the  Maize  Plant — Field  Studies 
of  the  Plant  (W.  C.  Etheridge). — In  1919  the  effect  of  an  associated  growth 
of  soybeans  upon  the  yield  of  corn  was  similar  to  the  effect  of  the  same 
cause  1917  and  1918.  In  each  of  these  three  years  there  have  been  two  out- 
standing general  results: 

(1)  A material  growth  of  soybeans,  by  whatever  method  combined 
with  corn,  always  caused  a material  reduction  in  the  yield  of  corn. 

(2)  Soybeans  planted  late,  any  method  and  in  any  manner,  in  all  cases 
failed  to  make  a material  growth  and  have  no  effect  on  the  yield  of  corn. 

Cultural  Experiments  With  Wheat  (W.  C.  Etheridge). — Cultural  ex- 
periments with  wheat  have  for  the  past  two  years  been  limited  to  the  treat- 
ment of  soybean  stubble  in  preparation  of  a seedbed  for  wheat.  To  find  the 
method  of  preparing  the  bean  stubble,  which  would  re-act  most  favorably 
upon  the  following  crop  of  wheat  has  been  the  object  of  the  experiments. 

The  following  are  the  summarized  results  of  1918  and  1919,  presenting 
average  yields  of  three  series  of  plots: 


Treatment  of  the 

Yield 

in  bushels 

of  grain 

stubble 

per  acre 

1918 

1919 

Average 

Untreated  

23.1 

15.6 

19.4 

Harrowed  

22.4 

13.5 

18.0 

Single-Disked  

21.9 

13.9 

17.9 

Double-Disked  

22.6 

15.6 

19.1 

Single-Disked,  harrowed  

24.4 

14.6 

19.5 

Double-Disked,  harrowed  

21.2 

16.1 

18.7 

Double-Disked,  rolled  

26.2 

14.7 

20.5 

The  results  do  not  show  that  any  of  the  treatments  were  profitable. 
They  were  all  shallow  treatments — the  only  kinds  which  may  usually  be 
applied  to  bean  stubble  in  preparation  for  wheat,  since  the  normal  season 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


35 


of  seeding  wheat  comes  close  upon  the  harvesting  of  the  bean  crop,  and 
plowing  the  stubble  would  obviously  make  the  soil  too  loose  for  a good 
seedbed.  There  is  indeed  a strong  indication  that  bean  stubble  land  which 
has  been  spring  plowed  and  kept  fairly  clean  during  the  season  is  without 
further  treatment  an  excellent  seedbed  for  wheat. 

A Study  of  the  Cultural  Requirements  and  Adaptations  of  Sudan  Grass 
(C.  A.  Helm). — At  Columbia  a crop  of  Sudan  grass  sown  in  rows  three 
feet  apart  in  early  summer  yielded  2.7  tons  of  cured  hay  per  acre  on  August 
15th,  and  1.3  tons  of  cured  hay  on  September  15th;  the  total  yield  of  4.0 
tons  for  the  season.  A part  of  the  crop,  allowed  to  mature,  yielded  14.5 
bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  on  October  1st. 

At  Cuba  the  hay  crop,  sown  on  a point  of  very  thin  land,  yielded  only 
0.27  tons  to  the  acre;  but  the  seed  crop,  sown  on  moist  sodland,  gave  an 
acre  yield  of  16.0  bushels. 

The  crop  at  Warrensburg  seeded  in  rows  three  feet  apart  made  an  acre 
yield  of  2.44  tons  of  cured  hay  from  a single  cutting  on  October  3rd;  but 
the  crop  seeded  with  the  grain  drill,  in  rows  eight  inches  apart,  made  on 
the  same  date  a yield  of  only  1.93  tons  per  acre. 

A Study  of  the  Important  Varieties  of  Oats  for  Missouri  Conditions 
(W.  C.  Etheridge). — Commercial  varieties  of  oats  were  tested  at  Maryville, 
Warrensburg  and  Springfield.  The  season  was  generally  good  and  the  crop 
yielded  well  in  each  section.  The  acre  yields  of  the  leading  varieties  in 
each  group,  early  and  late,  are  given  in  the  following  table: 


Variety  Maryville  Warrensburg  Springfield  Average 

Texas  Red  51.2  bu.  32.2  bu.  23.7  bu.  35.7  bu. 

Kherson  42.7  bu.  46.3  bu.  32.7  bu.  40.6  bu. 

Burt  40.3  bu.  33.9  bu.  21.0  bu.  31.7  bu. 

Silvermine  38.4  bu.  31.5  bu.  17.7  bu.  29.2  bu. 

White  Shonen  33.1  bu.  30.1  bu.  25.3  bu.  29.5  bu. 

American  Banner  44.8  bu.  29.7  bu.  30.7  bu.  35.1  bu. 


The  important  feature  of  these  results  is  the  comparatively  high  yields 
of  the  group  of  early  varieties.  These  amount  to  an  average  of  36.0  bushels 
to  the  acre,  while  the  yields  of  varieties  in  the  late  group  average  only  31.3 
bushels.  A similar  superior  yielding  capacity  of  early  varieties  had  con- 
sistently been  shown  in  previous  years. 

Tested  on  a nursery  scale  at  Columbia,  the  leading  varieties  and  their 
yields  were  as  follows: 


Variety 

Irish  Victor  

Kherson  Selection 

Sixty-day  

Fulghum  


Bushels  of  grain 
per  acre 

69.6 

67.2 

62.1 

60.9 


A Comparison  of  the  Most  Important  Grain  Sorghums  With  Corn  for 
Grain  and  Forage  Production  (W.  C.  Etheridge). — In  1919,  both  at  War- 
rensburg and  Cuba,  grain  sorghum  outyielded  corn  by  a wide  margin,  as 
the  following  data  will  show: 


36  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Corn  Bushels  of  grain  per  acre 


Blackhull  Kaffir  

Warrensburg 
31.0 

Cuba 

Sunrise  Kaffir  

28.5 

17.6 

Dawn  Kaffir  

22.0 

21.3 

Dwarf  Milo  

38.8 

8.9 

Average  

30.1 

15.9 

Bloody  Butcher  

29.0 

1.6 

St.  Charles  White  

23.7 

1.9 

Reid  Yellow  Dent  

21.6 

Learning  Yellow  

19.6 

Commercial  White  

26.9 

Boone  County  White  

18.2 

Ninety-day  Silvermine  

1.7 

White  Pearl  

0.7 

Average  

23.2 

1.5 

Cultural  Experiments  With  Alfalfa  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  C.  A .Helm). — 
The  most  interesting  developments  in  the  cultural  experiments  with  alfalfa 
and  sweet  clover  are  in  (1)  comparative  yields  of  the  two  crops  when 
hoth  are  under  the  same  cultural  treatment,  (2)  the  effect  of  the  small 
grain  nurse  crop  upon  the  yield  of  alfalfa  or  sweet  clover  and  (3)  the  relative 
effect  of  the  legume  upon  the  yield  of  the  nurse  crop,  in  both  hay  and 
grain. 

Briefly,  the  noteworthy  results  of  the  1919  season  are  the  following: 

(1)  Under  a broad  range  of  cultural  treatment  of  average  Missouri 
upland,  at  Columbia,  sweet  clover  invariably  outyielded  alfalfa  by  a wide 
margin.  The  difference  in  favor  of  sweet  clover  was  greatest  on  untreated 
land  and  least  on  land  well  limed,  fertilized,  and  manured. 

(2)  Sweet  clover  or  alfalfa  sown  with  a nurse  crop  gave  much  lower 
yields  than  when  sown  alone. 

(3)  Small  grain  nurse  crops  in  which  was  sown  sweet  clover  gave 
decidedly  lower  yields,  in  forage  and  in  grain,  than  when  alfalfa  was  sown 
with  them.  This  was  doubtless  due  to  the  heavier  growth  and  greater  com- 
petition of  the  sweet  clover. 

A Study  of  the  Adaptations  of  the  Important  Varieties  and  Selections 
of  Cowpeas  to  the  Various  Soil  Types  of  the  State  (W.  C.  Etheridge  and 

C.  A.  Helm). — Ten  varieties  of  cowpeas  were  tested  at  Columbia  for  yields 
of  seed,  with  the  following  results: 


Variety 

New  Era  

Red  Ripper  

Groit  

Black  

Whippoorwill  ... 

Clay  

Early  Ramshorn 

Cream  

Iron  

Brabham  


Bushels  of  seed 
per  acre 

21.8 

21.1 

20.3 

..  19.8 

18.9 

15.2 

14.5 

11.1 

9.0 

9.0 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


37 


HOME  ECONOMICS 


Utilization  of  Apple  Surplus  (Louise  Stanley,  Opal  Davis). — This  proj- 
ect was  designed  to  find  out  a product  which  was  palatable,  compact  and 
easily  transported.  It  was  found  that  apple  sauce  either  with  or  without 
spice  but  with  no  sugar  could  be  dried  into  compact  form  which  with  the 
addition  of  water  and  sugar  gave  a most  palatable  product  after  three  to 
four  minutes  boiling. 

The  product  was  dried  by  two  methods,  in  an  oven  at  low  temperature 
and  in  a current  of  heated  air.  The  methods  were  equally  satisfactory  and 
in  neither  case  was  there  a dried  apple  flavor. 

The  Effect  of  Blanching  in  the  Canning  of  Some  Typical  Crops  of 
Vegetables  (Miss  Ethel  Geldehaus). — A comparison  was  made  of  the  rate 
of  heating  of  quart  cans  of  spinach  when  heated  directly  and  when  heated 
after  blanching  and  the  cold  dip.  Temperature  readings  were  taken  every 
five  minutes  and  the  curves  plotted.  The  density  of  the  pack  was  varied  as 
well  as  the  method  of  previous  treatment.  After  blanching  spinach  by 
steam  and  the  cold  dip  as  recommended  in  the  government  directions, 
fifteen  minutes  longer  is  required  for  a quart  jar  filled  with  spinach,  so 
treated  to  reach  the  boiling  point  than  when  the  material  is  wilted  in  the 
top  of  a double  boiler  and  packed  directly  in  a quart  jar.  Increasing  the 
amount  of  spinach  in  the  can  from  1000  gms.  to  1500  gms.  per  quart  jar,  had 
no.  influence  on  the  time  required  for  the  center  of  the  jar  to  reach  the  tem- 
perature of  100  degrees  C. 

In  view  of  the  recent  findings  of  the  b.  Botulinus  in  canned  foods,  it 
was  decided  to  test  the  effect  of  the  above  conditions  on  this  organism. 
Cans  of  spinach  were  treated  as  above.  Inoculated  with  b.  Botulinus  and 
sterilized,  the  time  to  reach  100  degrees  C.  was  noted  and  the  jars  held  at 
this  temperature  for  varying  lengths  of  time.  This  material  was  sealed  and 
held  for  examination  since  tests  on  the  thermal  death  point  of  this  organ- 
ism are  not  conclusive  until  three  months  have  elapsed. 

Standardization  of  Cooking  Temperatures — Temperatures  for  cakes  as 
effected  by  amount  of  baking  powder  used  (Louise  Stanley,  Nita  Collier). — 
A standard  recipe  was  used  in  all  the  cakes.  Eight  series  were  baked  at  the 
following  temperatures: 

175  Degrees  C 195  Degrees  C 

180  Degrees  C 205  Degrees  C 

185  Degrees  C 215  Degrees  C 

190  Degrees  C 225  Degrees  C 

Temperatures  at  which  cakes  were  baked  had  no  effect  on  the  specific 
volume  or  texture  when  a medium  amount  of  baking  powder  was  used.  The 
specific  volume  of  cakes  made  with  eight  teaspoons  of  baking  powder  was 
greater  than  those  made  with  one  teaspoon  but  the  increase  was  not  in 
regular  sequence. 

The  specific  volume  of  cakes  at  all  temperatures  was  slightly  larger 
when  one  cake  was  baked  at  a time  than  when  four  cakes  were  baked. 
Probably  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  temperature  inside  the  cake  was 
higher  in  a shorter  length  of  time  where  one  cake  was  baked  than  where 
four  were  baked. 


38  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


There  was  no  relation  between  the  amount  of  baking  powder  used  and 
the  water  loss  in  the  cakes  in  baking,  in  24  hours,  in  48  hours,  or  in  total 
water  loss. 

There  was  no  relation  between  water  loss  and  the  temperature  used  in 
baking. 

The  time  required  for  baking  was  decreased  as  the  temperature  for  bak- 
ing was  increased. 

The  kind  of  sugar  used  had  little  effect  on  the  specific  volume  of  the 
cake,  but  it  did  have  a marked  effect  on  the  texture.  Cakes  made  with 
powdered  or  fine  grained  sugar  were  the  best  cakes.  The  specific  volume 
was  greater  when  the  egg  white  was  beaten  separately.  There  was  no  dif- 
ference in  the  specific  volume  when  the  egg  white  was  added  last  and  when 
it  was  added  before  the  baking  powder. 

Cakes  were  made  to  see  if  the  specific  volume,  when  the  fat  was  melted 
differed  from  the  specific  volume  when  fat  and  sugar  were  creamed  together. 
The  greater  the  amount  of  batter  the  greater  the  specific  volume  of  cakes. 

HORTICULTURE 

Fruit  Bud  Development  of  Fruit  Trees  as  Influenced  by  Treatment  and 
Previous  Crops  (F.  C.  Bradford). — A considerable  amount  of  data  has  been 
tabulated  concerning  the  relation  of  length  of  spur  growth  to  bearing  and 
the  relation  of  leaf  area  to  length  of  growth  and  to  bearing.  Material  has 
already  been  collected  for  a microscopic  study  of  buds  and  tissues. 

Breeding  Apples  for  Late  Blooming  Habit  (F.  C.  Bradford). — A few  of 
the  trees  grown  from  seed  resulting  from  crosses  made  in  1913  blossomed 
this  year.  While  conclusions  cannot  be  drawn  with  safety  until  several 
seasons  of  blossoming  have  passed,  it  is  apparent  that  the  trees  will  have 
blossoming  seasons  ranging  from  medium  to  late. 

A considerable  amount  of  pollination  was  done  this  spring,  but  because 
of  poor  weather  the  results  secured  were  rather  unsatisfactory.  However, 
there  will  be  more  or  less  seed  to  plant  next  spring.  The  crosses  made 
were  designed  to  bring  out,  if  possible,  the  principles  of  inheritance  of  the 
late-blossoming  character  more  especially  than  to  make  an  attempt  to 
secure  definite  gains  of  new  varieties.  To  this  end,  varieties  representing  a 
rather  wide  range  of  blossoming  seasons  were  crossed. 

Phenological  records  covering  thirteen  years  have  been  arranged, 
analyzed  and  tabulated  and  will  ultimately  be  used  in  connection  with  re- 
ports on  the  crosses  made. 

Cabbage  Seed  Selection  for  Disease  Resistance  (J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.). — It 
has  been  found  practically  impossible  under  our  conditions  to  secure  seed 
from  cabbage  plants  selected  for  disease  resistance,  in  summer,  due  to 
decay  the  following  year,  when  seed  should  be  produced.  Cabbage  plants 
are  now  being  grown  on  yellows-infected  land  in  such  a way  that  the 
disease  resistant  plants  will  mature  in  the  fall,  thus  making  it  easy  to  carry 
them  over  to  the  following  spring  for  seed  production. 

The  cabbage  yellows  disease  increased  rapidly  throughout  the  state. 
Counts  made  in  commercial  fields  of  cabbage  in  St.  Louis  County  showed 
20  to  75  per  cent  destruction  of  the  cron 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


39 


Orchard  and  Strawberry  Nutrition  (V.  R.  Gardner  and  H.  D.  Hooker, 
Jr.). — A bulletin  on  the  nutrition  of  apples  has  been  filed  for  publication. 

Samples  of  apple  fruit  spurs  with  leaves,  flowers  or  fruit  removed  were 
collected  at  intervals  during  the  year  and  their  chemical  composition  studied 
in  relation  to  their  physiological  condition. 

Three  types  were  investigated:  spurs  that  blossomed  and  bore  fruit; 

spurs  that  did  not  blossom  but  which  developed  fruit  buds  and  sterile  spurs 
that  neither  blossomed  nor  developed  fruit  buds.  The  first  type  is  repre- 
sented by  samples  from  Wealthy,  Ben  Davis  and  Jonathan  trees;  the 
second  by  samples  from  Ben  Davis,  and  Jonathan  trees,  the  Jonathan  being 
the  same  one  from  which  samples  of  the  first  type  were  taken;  the  third  by 
samples  from  Ben  Davis  and  Nixonite  trees.  Determinations  were  made 
of  the  dry  weight,  ash,  titratable  acidity  potassium,  phosphorus,  total  poly- 
saccharides, and  hydrogen  ion  concentration.  In  general  official  analytical 
methods  were  used.  The  starch  values  were  obtained  by  digestion,  followed 
by  hydrolysis  of  the  digestive  products.  Some  supplementary  microchemical 
tests  were  made. 

1.  The  seasonal  changes  in  most  of  the  constituents  examined  are  dis- 
tinct and  characteristic  of  the  condition  of  the  spur-bearing,  non-bearing,  or 
sterile.  In  general,  the  bearing  and  sterile  spurs  show  extreme  values, 
while  the  non-bearing  spurs  assume  a position  intermediate  between  them. 

2.  The  conditions  characteristic  of  bearing  and  non-bearing  spurs  of 
the  same  trees,  (Jonathan)  are  practically  identical  with  the  conditions  of 
spurs  from  trees  (Ben  Davis)  in  bearing  and  in  the  off  year  respectively. 
Spurs  from  barren  trees  are  characterized  by  a seasonal  chemical  picture 
distinctly  different  from  the  two  types  of  spurs  from  productive  trees. 

3.  For  most  constituents,  the  spurs  pass  through  one  period  of  max- 
imum content  and  one  of  the  minimum  content  during  the  course  of  a year. 
In  the  case  of  starch  and  titratable  acidity,  there  are  two  maxima  and  two 
minima;  the  maxima  of  one  coming  at  approximately  the  same  time  as  the 
minima  of  the  other.  Carbohydrate  consumption  and  acidity  seem  to  be 
correlated. 

4.  High  starch  and  low  nitrogen  content  at  the  time  of  fruit  bud 
differentiation  appear  to  be  essential  for  productivity.  Fruit-bearing  spurs 
that  develop  leaf  buds  have  low  starch  and  high  nitrogen  content,  and 
sterile  spurs  have  a low  starch  and  low  nitrogen  content.  The  starch- 
nitrogen  ratio  is  more  indicative  than  the  total  carbo-hydrate  nitrogen  ratio. 

5.  During  the  late  summer  and  fall,  there  is  a steady  increase  in  the 
phosphorous  and  nitrogen  content  of  spurs  with  fruit  buds.  The  absence 
of  this  feature  in  sterile  spurs  suggests  a necessity  of  phosphorus  and  nitro- 
gen storage  preparatory  to  the  marked  increase  in  these  elements  that  is 
peculiar  to  bearing  spurs  in  the  spring. 

Study  of  Factors  Influencing  the  Rest  Period  of  Horticultural  Plants 
(H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.). — The  rest  period  studies  have  been  continued  along 
the  same  lines  described  in  last  year’s  report.  Analyses  of  fruit  buds  that 
survived  last  winter’s  cold  and  of  buds  that  were  killed,  have  been  made. 
In  addition  to  the  analysis  previously  made,  ether  extract  has  been  deter- 
mined. The  analyses  on  peach  and  cherry  buds  show  the  surviving  buds 
to  have  a low  ether  extract,  but  to  have  a relatively  high  nitrogen,  phos- 


40  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


phorus  and  potash  content.  Analysis  of  comparable  samples  from  the  peach 
including  the  node  with  the  bud  showed  the  surviving  buds  to  have  a low 
moisture,  acidity,  and  nitrogen  content,  and  a high  starch  content.  The 
starch  is  stored  in  the  leaf  gap  and  hence  does  not  figure  in  the  analysis  of 
buds  alone. 

Investigations  With  Seed  Potatoes  (J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.). — Favorable  results 
were  secured  with  the  late  potato  crop  planted  July  1st.  Potatoes  produced 
in  the  fall  were  found  to  be  of  excellent  eating  and  keeping  quality.  Three 
hundred  and  fifty  potato  seedlings  are  being  grown  in  an  effort  to  develop 
a still  better  variety. 

Good  results  were  secured  by  the  use  of  fall  home-grown  potatoes  for 
planting  the  following  spring. 

In  the  testing  of  several  varieties  from  different  Northern  and  Western 


On  left — Early  Ohio  potatoes  grown  lrom  fall,  home-grown  seed.  On  right — same  variety 

from  Northern-grown  seed. 

potato  growing  sections,  especially  good  results  were  secured  from  seed 
grown  under  dry  farming  conditions  in  Western  Nebraska. 

In  seed  storage  tests,  it  was  found  that  potatoes  intended  for  spring 
planting  can  be  kept  over  winter  satisfactorily  in  cold  storage  at  32  to  40 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  in  cool  out-door  cellars. 

Peach  Breeding  for  Hardy  Sorts  (V.  R.  Gardner). — Many  of  the  first 
generation  seedlings  fruited  for  their  first  time  this  year.  Records  were 
made  of  tree  and  fruit  characteristics  and  seeds  were  obtained  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a second  generation  of  trees.  The  young  seedling  trees  are  now 
growing  in  the  nursery  row. 

Walnut  Grafting  Investigation  (V.  R.  Gardner). — A collection  has  been 
made  of  what  appears  to  be  the  most  promising  varieties  for  Missouri  con- 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


41 


ditions  and  suitable  records  are  being  kept  of  their  behavior.  Marked  dif- 
ferences are  in  evidence  in  the  ability  of  the  English  varieties  to  with- 
stand our  winters. 

Transplanting  Investigations  With  Vegetables  (J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.). — It  has 
been  found  that  hardness  may  be  increased  in  cabbage  and  tomato  plants 
by  various  treatments  which  check  vegetative  growth.  Analyses  are  being 
made  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  various  hardening  treatments  on  changes 
in  the  composition  of  the  plants  and  the  correlation  of  such  changes  with 
the  resistance  of  the  plants  to  cold.  Leaves  and  stems  of  plants  subjected  to 
various  treatments  are  being  sectioned  to  study  effects  of  hardening  on  the 
structure  of  the  tissues. 


Bliss  Triumph  Potatoes,  June  1919;  Northern  on  left  vs  fall,  home-grown  seed  on  right. 


Home  Vegetable  Gardening  (J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  R.  S.  Marsh). — A model 
farm  garden  and  a model  back  yard  garden  are  being  conducted  on  the  hor- 
ticultural grounds. 

The  farm  garden,  one-fifth  acre  in  size,  produced  $132.79  at  the  cost  of 
$42.00  including  labor.  The  back  yard  garden,  one-twenty-fifth  acre  in  size, 
produced  $62.23  at  the  cost  of  $18.45,  including  labor.  Data  were  secured 
that  indicate  that  certain  vegetable  crops  are  quite  profitable  under  farm 
garden  conditions,  while  others  do  not  pay  for  cost  of  production. 

Cooperative  Tomato  Investigation  (J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.). — In  ten  series  of 
cooperative  tests  in  1919,  yields  of  tomatoes  were  increased  on  the  average 
159.2  per  cent  by  8 tons  of  stable  manure;  152.9  per  cent  by  250  pounds  of 
4-8-5  fertilizer;  152  per  cent  by  250  pounds  of  4-8-0  fertilizer  and  106  per 


42  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 

cent  by  250  pounds  of  acid  phosphate.  The  most  economical  gain  for  the 
cannery  tomato  crop  was  produced  by  acid  phosphate. 

Another  important  result  demonstrated  in  the  fertilizer  tests  was  the 
increased  earliness  of  the  crop  when  commercial  fertilizer  was  used.  Plots 
receiving  complete  fertilizer  came  into  heavy  bearing  3 to  4 weeks  before 
the  unfertilized  plots,  and  plots  receiving  acid  prosphate  were  2 to  3 weeks 
earlier  than  the  unfertilized  plots. 

A number  of  the  large  growers  were  assisted  in  saving  their  own  tomato 
seed  from  selected  plants.  One  grower  saved  700  pounds  of  seed  worth 


Tomato  Fertilizer  test  at  Neosho,  Mo.:  Above,  no  fertilizer;  below,  250  pounds  of  4-8-0 

fertilizer. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


43 


$3.00  a pound  at  a cost  of  about  $60.00.  A number  of  strains  of  these  home- 
grown seed  are  being  grown  in  comparison  with  regular  seedsman’s  stock 
this  year. 

Cooperative  tests  of  wilt  resistant  strains  of  tomatoes  on  wilt-infected 
land  showed  good  results.  Further  selections  are  being  made  with  a view 
of  improving  the  quality  of  the  wilt  resistant  strains. 

Seed  of  wilt  resistant  strains  have  been  distributed  to  75  growers  for 
testing. 

Investigation  With  Everbearing  Strawberries  (H.  G.  Swartwout). — In 
a general  way,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  everbearing  varieties  of  straw- 
berries now  on  the  market  have  not  been  found  adapted  to  Missouri  con- 
ditions. 


POULTRY 

Value  of  Sour  Milk,  Beef  Scrap,  Cotton  Seed  Meal,  Gluten  Meal  and 
Oil  Meal  in  Rations  for  Egg  Production  (H.  L.  Kempster). — A scratch  feed 
for  all  pens  was  supplemented  with  basal  mash  consisting  of  2.2  pounds  bran, 
4.4  pounds  shorts.  To  this  basal  mash  was  added  meat  scrap,  and  cotton 
seed  meal  or  both  in  various  amounts.  In  the  check  pens  no  protein  con- 
centrates were  added.  In  one  of  these  pens  bone  meal  was  added  to  the 
basal  mash.  In  another  pen,  meat  scrap  was  given  in  the  ratio  of  0.57 
pounds  of  meat  scrap  to  6.6  pounds  of  basal  mash  or,  in  other  words,  the 
mash  contained  8 per  cent  meat  scrap.  This  amount  is  considerably  less 
than  is  usually  recommended.  In  the  pens  containing  no  animal  protein 
concentrate,  the  average  production  was  306  eggs.  The  egg  production  in 
the  other  pens  was  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  meat  scrap  used 
in  the  mash.  In  the  pens,  in  which  cotton  seed  meal  was  fed,  the  egg  pro- 
duction was  not  as  great  as  in  the  corresponding  pens  containing  the  same 
amount  of  meat  scrap,  but  not  containing  the  cotton  seed  meal.  The  pen 
fed  a mash  containing  8 per  cent  meat  scrap  produced  more  than  twice  as 
many  eggs  as  did  the  pens  fed  no  meat  scrap. 

Age  as  a Factor  in  Poultry  Breeding  (H.  L.  Kempster). — The  relative 
hatchability  of  eggs  from  White  Leghorn  hens  and  pullets  was  observed. 
The  hens’  eggs  were  4 per  cent  infertile  and  the  pullets’  eggs  were  12  per 
per  cent  infertile.  On  the  average  the  hens  showed  an  advantage  of  4 per 
cent  over  the  pullets  in  hatchability. 

Experiment  in  Chick  Feeding — Studies  of  Various  Supplementary  Feeds 
on  Growth.  (H.  L.  Kempster) — Eight  lots  of  White  Leghorn  chicks,  31  in  each 
lot,  were  fed  chick  feed  and  a mash  consisting  of  bran,  shorts,  and  cornmeal. 
This  basal  ration  was  supplemented  with  various  feeds  as  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing summary: 


44  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Feeds 

Hatching 

pounds 

weight 

Weight 
pounds 
2 weeks 

Weight 
pounds 
4 weeks 

Weight 
pounds 
6 weeks 

Mortality 

% 

Grain  mash,  whole  milk.... 

.073 

.141 

.236 

.35 

10 

Grain  mash,  skim  milk.... 

.071 

.136 

.234 

.33 

19 

Grain  mash,  whole  eggs.... 

.072 

.112 

.218 

.32 

7 

Grain  mash,  egg-whites, 

bone  meal  

.075 

.10 

.17 

.23 

32 

Grain  mash,  skim  milk, 

green  food  

.073 

.148 

.238 

.35 

16 

Grain  mash,  tankage 

.075 

.086 

.135 

.23 

23 

Grain  mash,  tankage, 

green  food  

.071 

.093 

.103 

.21 

28 

Grain  mash,  skim  milk, 

egg  yolks  

.072 

.162 

.298 

.422 

3 

The  amount  of  the  supplement  was  based  on  the  consumption  of  milk 
so  that  each  pen  received  approximately  the  same  amount  of  protein.  Evi- 
dently the  milk,  skim  milk  and  egg  yolks  contain  valuable  essentials  for 
promoting  growth. 

Influence  of  the  Time  of  Hatching  on  Future  Production  (H.  E.  Kemp- 
ster). — White  Leghorn  pullets  hatched  in  February,  March,  April  and  May 
were  observed.  Contrary  to  the  general  opinion,  early  hatched  birds  layed 
well  during  the  winter.  This,  however,  was  due  to  the  high  egg  yield  during 
November,  after  which  a large  proportion  went  into  a partial  molt,  although 
a number  kept  laying  the  entire  winter.  It  would  also  appear  from  these 
observations  that  if  a person  expects  winter  layers,  Leghorns  must  be 
hatched  not  later  than  May. 

Winter  Egg  Production  as  an  Indication  of  Year’s  Production  (H.  L. 

Kempster). — White  Leghorns  were  grouped  in  four  classes  as  to  production. 
From  the  data  collected,  it  seems  that  the  number  of  eggs  a hen  lays  during 
the  winter  months,  November  1 to  February  28,  is  an  excellent  index  to 
her  total  performance  for  the  year. 

Time  of  Molt  as  an  Indication  of  Past  and  Future  Egg  Production  (H. 

L.  Kempster). — White  Leghorn  hens  just  through  their  first  year’s  produc- 
tion were  grouped  into  three  classes;  those  which  had  completed  the 
molt  and  had  a new  coat  of  plumage;  those  which  were  molting;  and 
those  which  had  not  started  to  molt.  The  egg  production  of  these  birds 
was  observed  during  the  following  year.  The  birds  which  molted  early  not 
only  made  poor  egg  records  their  first  year  but  also  their  second  year. 
Those  which  molted  late  made  much  better  records  each  year. 

Relation  of  Plant  Carotinoids  to  Growth  (H.  L.  Kempster). — White 
Leghorn  chicks  were  hatched  from  carotinoid-free  eggs  from  hens  raised 
from  hatching  now  two  years  old,  on  a carotinoid-free  diet.  These  chicks 
have  been  fed  a carotinoid-free  diet.  They  are  now  12  weeks  old  and  are 
apparently  normal  except  for  the  absence  of  yellow  pigment.  The  growth 
has  been  excellent  and  the  mortality  extremely  low.  It  can  now  be  con- 
cluded that  the  natural  yellow  pigment  of  fowls  which  is  derived  from  the 
xanthophyll  of  the  food  bears  no  relation  to  growth. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


45 


RURAL  LIFE 

Tractor  and  Other  Farm  Equipment  Costs  on  the  Farm  (O.  R.  John- 
son, R.  M.  Green). — In  farm  cost  accounting  work  the  equipment  charge  for 
horse  power  equipment  and  the  smaller  tools  is  frequently  prorated  to  dif- 
ferent enterprizes  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  horse  hours  put  in  on  the 
•enterprize.  Equipment  charge  is  therefore  expressed  in  terms  of  cost  per 
horse  hour.  A summary  of  such  costs  for  the  last  five  years  follows: 


Year 

Equipment  Cost 
per  horse  hour 

Cash  outlay  for  repairs, 
replacements  & additions 
in  per  cent  of  average 
inventory  values 

1914 

2.3c 

28.0  % 

1915 

2.8c 

28.0  % 

1916 

2.9c 

23.0  % 

1917 

2.9c 

47.3  % 

1918 

3.7c 

42.0  % 

Five  of  the  farms  keeping  complete  cost  accounts  bought  tractors  last 
year. 

Cost  of  Producing  Farm  Products  Under  Farm  Conditions  (O.  R. 

Johnson,  R.  M.  Green). — Sixteen  complete  sets  of  accounts  were  received 
from  14  counties.  The  work  of  setting  up  quantitative  cost  formulas  from 
the  large  amount  of  data  collected  to  date  was  begun.  This  work  was 
undertaken  in  order  to  facilitate  the  giving  out  of  recent  cost  information 
to  farm  bureaus.  The  Missouri  Farm  Bureau  Federation  is  providing 
means  for  collecting  up-to-date  information  on  dollar  costs.  These  data 
can  be  applied  to  the  quantitative  cost  formulas  to  provide  timely  informa- 
tion as  to  current  costs. 

Using  the  “Wheat  Formula,”  the  cost  of  producing  the  1919  wheat  crop 
in  Missouri  was  determined  in  July,  1919,  as  being  $25.27  an  acre.  The 
yield  at  that  time  was  estimated  at  13  bushels  to  the  acre  which  gave  a 
cost  per  bushel  of  $1.94.  The  final  yield  reported  for  the  year  was  13.5 
bushels.  Using  this  yield,  the  cost  per  bushel  would  have  been  $1.87.  The 
latter  figure  checks  exactly  with  a recent  report  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  made  nine  months  later  and  after  a careful  field  study  of  costs 
in  three  Missouri  counties.  Further  tests  of  this  kind  are  needed,  of  course, 
to  establish  the  most  dependable  formulas,  and  to  determine  the  allowances 
necessary  to  make  under  varying  conditions. 

Using  the  same  formula  and  applying  1920  prices,  the  average  cost  per 
bushel  of  wheat  in  1920  has  been  determined  as  $2.26.  This  is  on  the  basis 
of  a 12^4  bushel  yield  indicated  to  date  by  State  and  United  States  crop 
reports. 

Aside  from  the  complete  cost-account  records,  the  financial  accounts 
of  10  or  12  farms  were  summarized  showing  cash  receipts  and  expenditures 
and  inventory  values. 

Following  is  an  extarct  from  a report  made  to  the  Executive  Secre- 
tary of  the  Missouri  Farm  Bureau  Federation.  It  indicates  in  a brief  way, 
the  scope  of  work  accomplished  to  date,  on  following  acreage  of  main  crops: 


46  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Acreage 

Corn  5886 

Oats  ; 1838 

Wheat  2405 

Rye  327 

And  on  main  classes  of  livestock: 
No.  Head 

Work  Horses  or  Mules  750 

Young  Horses  or  Mules  300 

Milk  Cows  360 

Other  cattle  600 


Clover  

Timothy  

Alfalfa  

Acreage 

1287 

1721 

544 

Soybeans  

465- 

Cowpeas  

430 

No.  Head 

Brood  Sows  

1550 

Other  Hogs  

12500 

Sheep  

1000 

Poultry  

17500* 

Showing  result  of  adding  later  data  to  first  two  years’  data. 
Average  total  labor  requirements  of  various  crops: 


Crop 

Man  labor  in  hours 

Horse  labor  in  hours 

4 farms 
1910-11 

Data  up  to  and 
including  1914 

4 farms 
1910-11 

Data  up  to  and 
including  1914 

Corn  

23.81 

21.81 

41.82 

38.77 

Oats  

10.08 

9.40 

18.92 

17.90 

Wheat  

10.48 

15.49 

18.38 

27.17 

Clover  

8.62 

7.73 

9.43 

7.62 

Timothy  

7.06 

7.36 

9.50 

8.71 

Alfalfa  

26.59 

18.50 

45.50 

32.01 

Soybeans  

21.80 

21.08 

36.10 

34.47 

Cowpeas  

19.94 

18.93 

30.27 

32.86 

Rye  

9.98 

20.38 

Rape  

5.48 

14.87 

The  Agricultural  and  Market  Value  of  Missouri  Farm  Lands  (O.  R. 

Johnson,  R.  M.  Green). — Work  on  this  project  was  in  the  nature  of  trying 
out  the  following  plan  of  obtaining  the  agricultural  value  of  Missouri  farm 
lands.  Work  was  all  on  the  basis  of  1910  data. 

Average  acreage  of  corn,  oats  and  wheat  and  each  other  crop  per  farm 
was  obtained  from  the  1910  census  report.  Average  yields  as  reported  in 
the  census  and  average  prices  for  the  period  1900-10  were  used  in  arriving" 
at  gross  returns  from  crop  acres.  Net  returns  except  interest  on  invest- 
ment was  arrived  at  by  taking  cost  of  production  except  interest  on  land 
from  gross  receipts.  Cost  of  production  figures  collected  by  the  cost  ac- 
counting work  of  this  Department  were  used.  The  net  receipts  thus  ar- 
rived at  represent  the  rent  the  land  pays  after  all  other  expenses  are  paid. 
Dividing  this  sum  by  six  per  cent  gives  the  land  value  that  will  pay  six  per 
cent  interest.  This  is  designated  agricultural  or  productive  value.  After 
allowing  for  pasture  land,  woodland  and  waste,  this  farm  acre  value  is  com- 
pared with  the  market  values  as  reported  in  the  census. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


47 


A partial  report  of  the  work  done  is  as  follows: 


County 

Crop-acres 
per  farm 

Total  acres 
per  farm 

Agr.  value 
of  crop 
acre 

Agr.  value 
per  acre 
of  farm 

Market 
value 
per  acre 
of  farm 

Land 

value 

index 

Atchison.. 

116.05 

187.0 

121.33 

98.58 

96.05 

103.0 

Holt 

71.74 

133.3 

105.50 

80.52 

76.69 

104.0 

Nodaway.. 

68.47 

139.8 

106.16 

79.62 

80.02 

99.5 

Andrew.— 

52.00 

107.0 

103.16 

77.37 

83.22 

93.0 

Buchanan 

46.68 

92.1 

137.16 

102.87 

106.70 

96.5 

Platte 

60.26 

116.8 

133.83 

102.13 

77.47 

132.0 

Carroll .... 

70.25 

128.0 

87.00 

67.66 

59.97 

113.0 

Livingston 

51.97 

128.0 

98.50 

68.95 

57.02 

120.5 

Land  Tenure  in  Missouri  (O.  R.  Johnson). — There  are  three  common 
systems  of  renting  land:  (a)  For  a share  of  all  crops,  (b)  a share  of  the 
crop  on  the  main  crop-land,  and  cash  fo  rthe  rest  of  the  farm;  (c)  a straight 
cash  charge  for  the  whole  farm. 

The  share  tenant  has  the  least  capital  and  the  cash  tenant  most.  The 
share  tenant  as  a rule  gets  the  more  fertile  land.  He  is  also  a better  feeder 
of  live  stock,  getting  $145  for  each  $100  worth  of  feed  fed  compared  to  the 
■$126.00  for  the  cash  tenant.  The  latter,  however,  was  doing  the  bigger  live 
stock  business. 

The  share  tenant  pays  82  per  cent  more  rent  to  the  acre  than  does  the 
cash  tenant,  and  pays  the  landlord  nearly  twice  the  interest  on  investment 
that  the  cash  tenant  pays. 

The  share-cash  running  system  serves  merely  as  a middle  ground 
between  the  other  two  systems. 

The  Standard  of  Living  on  the  Farm  as  a Factor  in  the  Cost  of  Pro- 
duction (O.  R.  Johnson,  R.  M.  Green). — For  12  to  14  farms  that  have  kept 
complete  accounts  continuously  for  several  years,  household  expenses  are 
tabulated  as  follows: 


Year 

Av.  cash  house- 
hold expense 
per  farm 

Per  cent  of 
1914  cost 

per  cent  of 
previous  year’s 
cost 

1914 

$ 416 

100 

1915 

481 

116 

116 

1916 

505 

121 

105 

1917 

756 

182 

150 

1918 

849 

204 

112 

1919 

1082 

260 

128 

General  Plan  of  Farm  Organization  and  Operation  in  Different  Sections 

(O.  R.  Johnson,  R.  M.  Green). — Men  with  less  than  $5,000  capital  should 
not  attempt  to  own  land  in  a moderate  to  high  priced  farming  section.  A 
better  income  will  be  realized  by  using  all  their  capital  as  working  capital. 

In  the  group  of  farms  with  from  $5,000  to  $20,000  the  main  differences 
are  in  the  investment  and  efficiency  with  live  stock.  The  low  income  class 
kept  out  too  lilttle  capital  as  operating  capital  and  had  too  much  invested 


48  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 

per  acre  for  the  yield  they  were  getting;  while  they  were  poorer  feeders 
of  livestock  and  had  greater  losses  from  disease  than  did  the  more  suc- 
cessful. 

The  problems  confronting  the  men  with  from  $20,000  to  $40,000  capital 
do  not  differ  greatly  from  those  of  Group  II,  except  that  the  renting  of  addi- 
tional land  is  not  important.  These  farms  are  more  strictly  hog  and  beef 
cattle  farms.  Plenty  of  working  capital  and  reforms  in  feeding  practice 
are  even  more  essential  here  than  in  Group  II.  Increase  in  wheat  yields  is 
worth  trying  for  in  all  classes. 

On  farms  with  over  $40,000  capital,  the  first  thing  noticed  is  that  those 
making  low  incomes  are  not  farming  their  land.  They  live  on  an  interest 
return  of  3 to  4 per  cent.  Some  of  them  rent  out  part  of  their  land  and  live 
on  the  rent.  The  land  they  retain  had  better  be  rented  and  their  working 
capital  loaned  out,  as  they  do  not  retain  enough  to  farm  economically. 

Another  source  of  trouble  is  the  failure  to  use  silage  in  cattle  feeding. 
Those  making  money  used  silage  to  cheapen  their  rations.  Skill  or  luck  in 
buying  or  selling  is  not  a small  factor  in  their  success  with  cattle.  With 
hogs,  they  need  more  pigs  per  sow,  and  the  eradication  of  cholera  would 
mean  a big  saving. 

Utilization  of  Labor  on  the  Farm  (O.  R.  Johnson,  R.  M.  Green). — 
Labor  requirements  by  operations  have  been  determined.  The  following 
report  is  for  1914: 


Corn  Gathered  from  Standing  Stalks,  North  Missouri  Conditions. 


24.5  bu.  North  Mo.  Corn 

1914 

Man  hours 

Horse  hours 

Cut  stalks  

1.24 

2.38 

Break  

2.90 

9.52 

Disc,  etc 

2.47 

7.87 

Plant  

1.06 

2.10 

Harrow  Corn  

1.49 

3.68 

Cultivate  

3.99 

8.26 

Cut  Weeds  

2.43 

Gather  from  Standing  Stalks 

4.91 

8.55 

Total  

....  20.49 

42.36 

Corn  Gathered  from  Shock, 

North  Missouri 

Conditions. 

Man  hours 

Horse  hours 

Cut  Stalks  

1.24 

2.38 

Break  

2.90 

9.52 

Disc  and  so  forth  

2.47 

7.87 

Plant  

1.06 

2.10 

Harrow  Corn  

1.49 

3.68 

Cultivate  

3.99 

8.26 

Cut  Weeds  

2.43 

Cut  Corn  

6.05 

Gather  from  shock  

8.51 

9.90 

Total  

....  30.14 

43.71 

What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


49 


Corn  Gathered  from  Standing  Stalks,  South  Missouri  Conditions. 

Man  hours  Horse  hours 

Break  4.95  12.92 

Disc,  etc 2.52  8.55 

Plant  1.11  2.10 

Cultivate  7.00  12.20 

Cut  Weed  2.50  

Gather  from  Stalks  7.20  8.16 

Total  25.28  43.93 

SOILS 

Crop  Rotation  and  Fertilizer  Experiments  (M.  F.  Miller,  F.  L.  Duley). 
— The  1919  cropping  year  marked  the  30th  year  of  these  experiments.  It 
was  a somewhat  more  favorable  season  than  the  average  for  general  crops 
and  on  the  whole  the  yields  were  good.  There  are  two  or  three  interesting 
comparisons  from  among  the  thirty-nine  plots.  A four  year  rotation  which 
has  been  continued  during  this  thirty  year  period  consisting  of  corn,  oats, 
wheat  and  clover  gave  a corn  yield  this  season  of  52.2  bushels  while  the 
same  rotation  with  manure  gave  a yield  of  60.1  bushels. 

The  plot  which  has  been  in  continuous  corn  for  thirty  years  without 
treatment  yielded  19.6  bushels  while  a similar  continuously  cropped  plot 
receiving  barnyard  manure  yielded  39.1  bushels  or  approximately  twice  as 
much. 

It  can  be  said  in  general  regarding  the  effect  of  crop  rotation  on  corn 
that  it  has  been  more  effective  in  maintaining  the  yield  where  no  manure 
has  been  applied,  than  has  continuous  corn  with  manure.  The  same  can  be 
said  of  wheat,  although  this  statement  does  not  hold  for  oats  and  grass. 

Another  interesting  result  of  the  thirty  years’  experiments  is  that 
heavy  applications  of  commercial  fertilizer  have  been  practically  as  effec- 
tive in  maintaing  the  yield  of  wheat  under  continuous  cropping,  and  the 
yield  of  all  crops  in  a six  year  rotation,  as  has  the  heavy  use  of  stable 
manure. 

Experiments  to  Determine  the  Best  Systems  of  Soil  Management  for 
the  Most  Important  Soil  Types  in  Missouri — Soil  Experiment  Fields  (M. 
F.  Miller,  F.  L.  Duley,  O.  B.  Price). — The  following  fields  have  been  in 
operation  during  the  past  year: 


Field  Name 

County 

Soil  Type 

Billings  

....Christian  

Crawford  silt  loam 

Cuba  

....Crawford  

Lebanon  silt  loam 

Chillicothe  

....Livingston  

Wabash  Clay 

Eldorado  Springs 

— Cedar  : 

Bates  silt  loam 

Kirksville  

—Adair  

Lindley  silt  loam 

Maryville  

....Nodaway  

Marshall  silt  loam 

Morley  , 

Sarpy  silt  loam 

Poplar  Bluff 

— Butler  

Waverly  silt  loam 

Portage  Des  Sioux.... 

....St.  Charles  

Wabash  Clay 

St.  James 

....Phelps  

Gerald  silt  loam 

Strafford  

— Greene  

Lebanon  silt  loam 

Union  

....Franklin  

Union  silt  loam 

Vandalia  

....Audrain  

Putnam  silt  loam 

Williow  Springs 

— Howell  

Clarksville  silt  loam 

Windsor  

....Pettis  

Oswego  silt  loam 

50  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Several  farmers’  meetings  were  held  in  connection  with  these  fields 
during  the  year  at  which  time  the  fields  were  visited,  results  were  given 
and  recommendations  made  regarding  the  soil  management  of  the  soil  types 
in  question. 

Below  is  given  a summary  of  results  from  these  experiment  fields 
from  the  .time  of  their  establishment  until  the  close  of  the  1918  season. 
For  convenience  the  results  were  applied  to  a corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover 
rotation  although  the  rotation  varies  somewhat  on  the  different  fields. 


Average  annual  value  of  crop  increases  due  to  treatments — 14  years  re- 
sults : 


Manure 
8 tons 
4 years 

Limestone 
1 ton 

Bonemeal 
300  lbs. 

Acid 
Phos. 
400  lbs. 

Rock 
Phos. 
1000  lbs 

Potassium 
Chloride 
50  lbs. 

Legume 

Corn  

$10.13 

$3.06 

$3.87 

$2.87 

$0.60 

$2.70 

$0.83 

Oats  

5.03 

.78 

4.52 

1.56 

.80 

.67 

.13 

Wheat  

10.10 

2.26 

10.08 

11.22 

3.96 

2.98 

.72 

Clover  

8.78 

5.54 

13.39 

9.31 

.53 

1.00 

1.30 

Return  per  Rotation 

32.04 

10.08 

31.86 

24.96 

4.83 

7.35 

1.06 

Cost  of  Treatment.  . 

10.00 

4.00 

6.40 

5.40 

7.00 

5.00 

2.00 

Net  Ret.  per  Rotation 
Per  cent  Increase 

22.04 

6.08 

25.46 

19.56 

—2.17 

2.35 

—.94 

on  investment 

220 

152 

397 

362 

—31 

47 

—47 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  above  table  that  the  treatment  known  as 
the  legume  treatment  has  brought  no  financial  returns.  This  can  be  ex- 
plained by  the  statement  that  this  treatment  consists  largely  of  growing 
cowpeas  or  soybeans  in  the  corn  which  practice  has  been  shown  to  be  un- 
economical from  the  standpoint  of  green  manuring  alone.  It  is  not  possible 
to  pasture  these  legumes  and  secure  any  economic  return  in  that  way. 

In  the  case  of  the  potassium  chloride  application,  it  seems  probable 
that  this  was  somewhat  high  for  the  average  soils  in  Missouri. 


Wheat  on  left  received  260  pounds  per  acre  of  acid  phosphate  and  yielded  twenty-seven 
bushels  per  acre.  Wheat  on  right  received  no  fertilizer  and  yielded  fifteen  bushels 
per  acre.  Wentzville  Experiment  Field. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


51 


The  rock  phosphate  has  always  been  applied  in  combination  with 
manure.  On  certain  fields  a good  response  has  been  secured,  particularly 
with  wheat,  but  the  small  response  from  other  crops  has  made  this  appli- 
cation uneconomical,  as  a state  average. 

Acid  phosphate  has  not  been  used  in  so  many  cases  as  has  bonemeal 
as  a carrier  of  phosphorus.  In  the  early  experiments  bonemeal,  and  rock 
phosphate  were  used  extensively  but  the  increased  price  of  bonemeal  has 
caused  a change  to  acid  phosphate  on  all  the  fields  established  within  the 
last  five  years. 

The  Determination  and  Mapping  of  Missouri  Soil  Types. — Soil  Survey 

(M.  F.  Miller,  H.  H.  Krusekopf,  Wm.  De  Young,  Howard  V.  Jordan). — 
Maps  of  St.  Louis  and  Polk  Counties  have  been  finished  and  field  work 
begun  in  Lafayette  and  Cole  counties.  Including  St.  Louis  and  Cole 
counties,  this  makes  a total  of  51  counties  now  covered  by  detailed  soil 
maps. 


The  effect  of  bone  meal  sown  with  wheat  on  the  clover  crop  at  the  Willow  Springs  Ex- 
periment Field.  The  application  of  bone  meal  was  required  to  secure  a clover  stand. 

Work  was  also  begun  on  a map  covering  the  brown  loess  soils  of  Mis- 
souri. These  soils  are  of  very  much  interest  because  of  their  very  wide 
crop  adaptation  for  agricultural  use  and  because'of  their  special  adaptation 
to  fruit.  The  map  will  differentiate  this  brown  loess  into  six  distinct  phases 
of  types  having  varying  agricultural  and  horticultural  uses. 

Studies  of  Water  Absorption,  Runoff,  Percolation,  Evaporation,  Capil- 
lary Water  Movement,  and  Soil  Erosion  Under  Field  Conditions  (M.  F. 

Miller,  F.  L.  Duley). — This  experiment  includes  a series  of  plots  under  dif- 
ferent systems  of  cropping  and  cultivation  to  determine  the  effects  of  these 
treatments  on  the  amount  of  erosion  and  surface  run-off. 


52  Missouri  Agricultural-  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


A summary  of  three  years’  results  to  May  1,  1920,  is  given  in  following  table: 


Treatment 

Tons  soil 
eroded  per  acre 

Per  cent  of 
rainfall  absorbed 

1 

Uncultivated,  weed  pulled  

74.506 

.53.64 

2 

Plowed  4 in.  deep  in  spring, 
summer  fallowed  

120.228 

69.70 

3 

Plowed  8 in.  deep  in  spring, 
summer  fallowed  

119.565 

71.76 

4 

Sod  

1.476 

88.31 

3 

Wheat  continuous  

12.110 

78.42 

6 

Rotation — Corn,  wheat,  clover 

9.910 

82.97 

7 

Corn,  continuous  

64.054 

73.58 

During  the  season  1919  the  erosion  from  the  land  plowed  8 inches  deep 
was  made  less  than  in  1918.  This  was  due  to  the  even  distribution  of  rain- 
fall. The  loss  of  soil  from  plowed  lands  depends  much  more  upon  the 


Fertilizer  Experiment  with  Corn.  Station  Field,  Plots  3 and  2.  No  treatment  vs  2-10-2, 
300  pounds  per  acre  broadcast  ahead  of  planter. 

character  of  rainfall  than  it  does  upon  the  total  amount.  Sod  land  and 
rotated-land  are  the  most  effective  in  preventing  erosion. 

The  Effect  of  Different  Amounts  and  Different  Methods  of  Applying 
Commercial  Fertilizer  on  the  Corn  Crop  (M.  F.  Miller  and  F.  L.  Duley). — 
The  season  of  1919  was  very  favorable  for  the  use  of  fertilizer  on  the  corn 
crop.  This  was  due  to  the  even  distribution  of  the  rainfall  which  gave  the 
fertilizer  a good  chance  to  act  without  having  any  tendency  to  burn  the  crop. 

The  increases  due  to  fertilizer  in  1919  were  much  better  than  for  pre- 
vious years  of  the  experiment.  This  was  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
rainfall  was  more  evenly  distributed  and  at  no  time  during  the  season  did 
the  corn  suffer  seriously  from  drought. 

The  Determination  of  the  Relative  Values  of  Different  Forms  of  Phos- 
phorus Upon  the  Soils  of  Columbia  (M.  F.  Miller,  F.  L.  Duley). — This 
project  was  continued  according  to  plans  and  a crop  of  corn  was  harvested 
in  the  fall  of  1919.  Arranged  in  order  of  yield  beginning  with  the  highest, 
the  different  phosphates  stood  as  follows:  calcined  phosphate,  acid  phos- 

phate, basic  slag,  rock  phosphate,  bonemeal. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


53 


The  average  yields  of  corn  from  the  different  treatments  are  shown  as 
follows : 


Treatment 

1919  Yield 

Increase  due  to 
fertilizer  over 
adjoining  check  plots 

1.  Checks  (average) 

23.4 

2.  2-10-2,  300  lbs.  broadcast 

15.4  bu.* 

4.  2-10-2,  150  lbs.  broadcast 

9.0  bu. 

6.  2-10-2,  250  lbs.  broadcast 

50  lbs.  in  row  

13.2  bu. 

8.  2-10-2,  150  lbs.  in  row 

13.6  bu. 

10.  2-10-2  75  lbs.  in  row 

8.9  bu. 

12.  Acid  Phosphate,  100  lbs.  in  row 

5.9  bu. 

14.  2-10-2,  150  lbs.  at  3rd  cultivation 

1.2  bu. 

16.  2-10-2,  300  lbs.  at  3rd  cultivation 

2.5  bu. 

18.  2-10-2,  150  lbs.  at  2nd  cultivation 

75  lbs.  in  row  

1.8  bu. 

20.  2-10-2,  150  lbs.  at  3rd  cultivation 

Acid  Phosphate,  75  lbs.  in  row 

2.5  bu. 

22.  Acid  Phosphate,  150  lbs.  at  3rd 
cultivation  

1.3  bu. 

*Gain  over  two  adjoining  checks. 


The  yields  this  year  were  high,  the  untreated  plots  averaging  68.7 
bushels  per  acre.  The  increase  due  to  the  phosphates  were  small  and  in 
most  cases  would  hardly  pay  the  cost  of  application. 

An  Investigation  Having  to  Do  With  the  Development  of  the  Various 
Parts  of  the  Maize  Plant  as  Influenced  by  Variation  in  Soil  Moisture,  Soil 
Composition  and  Texture,  and  in  the  Supply  of  Plant  Food  (M.  F.  Miller, 
F.  E.  Duley). — The  part  of  this  experiment  having  to  do  with  soil  moisture 
was  resumed  after  being  discontinued  for  two  years  during  the  war.  The 
results  of  this  year’s  work  check  very  favorably  with  those  previously 
reported.  Some  further  studies  on  the  chemical  composition  of  these  plants 
as  affected  by  the  supply  of  water  are  being  made.  A report  of  this  entire 
investigation  is  being  prepared  for  publication. 

Nitrate  Production  in  a Soil  as  Affected  by  the  Crop  and  Cultivation 
(Wm.  A.  Albrecht). — Results  of  three  years  of  cropping  give  the  following- 
main  facts: 

1.  The  crop  is  of  significant  influence  in  removing  the  nitrates  so  that 
the  accumulation  of  these  is  almost  the  reciprocal  of  the  rate  and  season  of 
crop  growth. 

2.  Early  spring  tillage,  particularly  plowing,  increases  the  nitrate  con- 
tent but  surface  tillage  lessens  rather  than  increases  nitrate  content  in  the 
upper  seven  inches  of  soil,  mainly  because  it  dries  the  larger  part  of  this 
soil  stratum.  This  emphasizes  the  need  for  shallow  cultivation  especially 
in  soils  whose  surface  layer  is  not  very  deep. 

3.  Of  all  treatments  studied,  the  straw  mulch  produced  the  most  sig- 
nificant effects  in  holding  down  nitrate  production.  During  three  years,  this 
mulch  plot  never  went  higher  than  twenty-seven  pounds  of  nitrogen  though 
unmulched  fallow  soil  rose  to  204  pounds  of  nitrogen  as  nitrate  per  acre. 

Experiments  to  Determine  the  Value  of  Bat  Guano  as  a Fertilizer  (Wm. 
A.  Albrecht).— A survey  of  the  state  has  located  over  seventy  caves  to- 


54  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


date  with  many  containing  small  deposits  of  guano.  Most  of  these  are  in- 
accessible and  make  developments  of  the  deposit  economically  doubtful. 
The  results  of  the  work  have  been  summarized  and  for  using  bat  guano  as 
a fertilizer,  it  is  generally  recommended  (1)  that  fresh  guano  be  reinforced 
by  adding  phosphorus.  That  taken  from  the  older  deposits  is  fairly  rich  in 
phosphorus  but  low  in  nitrogen  and  may  require  the  addition  of  the  latter. 
(2)  Dry  guano  is  too  light  to  be  spread  through  machinery,  and  if  used  alone 
should  be  spread  before  it  has  lost  all  its  moisture.  (3)  Good  bat  guano  is 
an  excellent  fertilizer  and  can  be  used  alone,  but  for  best  results,  it  should 
serve  in  mixed  fertilizers  to  make  it  a better  balanced  plant  food. 

Studies  on  the  Longevity  of  B.  Radicicola  in  the  Soil  (Wm.  A.  Al- 
brecht).— Pseudomonas  radicicola,  the  bacterium  which  produces  the  nod- 
ules on  legume  roots  and  keeps  them  fed  on  air  nitrogen  as  well  as  that  in 
the  soil  is  not  always  present  in  the  soil,  but  must  be  introduced  by  artifi- 
cial inoculation.  When  once  put  into  the  soil,  the  question  arises  as  to  how 
long  the  bacteria  will  live  there.  The  study  of  this  question  to  the  present 
time  shows  that  legume  bacteria  live  in  a soil  for  a considerable  time,  even 
in  a dry  soil. 

Two  different  soils  on  which  soybeans  and  red  clover  had  grown 
with  plenty  of  nodules  were  stored  under  different  conditions.  Samples 
were  left  out  of  doors  protected  from  contamination.  Others  were  dried 
in  the  sunlight  and  some  in  the  dark,  and  later  stored  so  as  to  be  free  from 
chance  contamination.  At  intervals  of  a half  year,  these  soils  are  planted 
with  their  respective  legumes  whose  seeds  were  sterilized,  to  see  if  there 
are  enough  bacteria  in  the  soil  to  produce  good  root  infection. 

Tests  have  been  run  at  intervals  of  six  months  for  the  past  two  years 
and  will  be  continued  for  sometime.  The  results  indicate  clearly  that  even 
though  soil  may  have  been  dried  in  the  sun,  there  are  enough  viable  bac- 
teria to  produce  as  good  an  infection  as  from  the  soil  which  was  dried 
in  the  dark,  or  that  left  out-of-doors.  In  gathering  an  infected  soil,  with 
which  to  inoculate  a few  fields,  it  seems  that  there  is  no  such  great  danger 
in  exposing  this  inoculation  material  to  the  sun  as  has  once  been  sug- 
gested. Drying  in  the  sunlight  and  storing  in  the  dry  state  for  two  years 
seem  to  have  no  serious  injurious  effect  on  the  inoculating  power  of  the 
soil  as  compared  to  a soil  left  in  its  natural  condition  out  of  doors.  With 
this  fact  established,  one  can  gather  a well  infected  soil,  in  the  season  when 
nodules  of  the  legumes  are  plentiful  and  store  that  soil  in  the  dry  state  for 
use  as  inoculating  material  the  next  year. 

The  following  table  giving  the  nodule  production  on  plants  grown  in 
soils  differently  treated  shows  that  the  destructive  action  by  sunlight  is  not 
serious : 


Treatment 


Nodules  per  plant 
Soybean  Red  clover 


Dried  in  sun,  stored  two  years  6 7 

Dried  in  the  dark,  stored  two  years  4 10 

No  treatment,  fresh  field  soil  used  for  test  5 8 


Effect  of  Weathering  and  Storage  Upon  the  Composition  of  Barnyard 
Manure  (M.  F.  Miller,  F.  L.  Duley). — Three  ton  lots  of  manure  were  used 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


55 


in  this  experiment.  One  lot  was  stored  in  a tight  pan  which  represented 
about  the  conditions  of  a manure  pit.  Another  similar  lot  was  stored  in  a 
pan  that  was  provided  with  a drainage  hole.  The  leachings  were  caught 
and  analyzed.  The  third  lot  of  manure  was  piled  in  a conical  pile  on  the 
ground. 

The  principal  loss  from  the  manure  due  to  leaching,  is  on  the  potash 
rather  than  the  other  elements.  Most  of  the  nitrogen  loss  seems  to  dis- 
appear in  a gaseous  form  into  the  air  and  only  very  small  amounts  are  car- 
ried away  in  the  leachings.  Under  the  conditions  of  this  experiment  the 
conical  pile  on  the  ground  seemed  about  equally  effective  with  the  closed 
pit  in  conserving  the  fertility  in  manure.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  for  the  most  part,  it  was  deeper  and  turned  water  fairly  well;  it  does 
not,  therefore,  become  alternately  wet  and  dry  so  often,  but  it  does  lose 
heavily  of  its  potash. 


Plot  on  left  had  8 tons  lime  applied  in  surface  8 inches  and  the  yield  was  2.48  tons  of  hay. 
Plot  on  right  had  the  same  amount  of  lime  applied  in  subsoil  and  the  yield  was  oniy 
1.55  tons  of  hay  per  acre. 


In  another  phase  of  this  work  liquid  manure  was  absorbed  by  straw 
bedding,  and  exposed  in  thin  layers  during  the  winter  months.  The  straw 
seemed  very  effective  in  holding  the  nitrogen  from  the  manure. 

An  Experiment  for  the  Purpose  of  Determining  the  Proper  Fineness 
of  Grinding  Limestone  for  Agricultural  Purposes  and  the  Rates  and  Meth- 
ods of  Its  Application  to  an  Acid  Soil  (M.  F.  Miller,  F.  L.  Duley). — The 
plots  were  in  sweet  clover.  The  unlimed  land  produced  1.319  tons  per  acre. 
The  land  having  8 tons  of  lime  per  -acre,  applied  in  the  subsoil  produced 
1.728  tons  per  acre.  The  same  amount  of  lime  applied  in  the  surface  eight 
inches  produced  2.432  tons;  and  where  the  lime  was  distributed  through 
both  soil  and  subsoil,  the  yield  was  1.914  tons  per  acre.  Where  the  lime  was 
applied  at  different  rates  the  yield  of  sweet  clover  increased  with  the  appli- 
cation. 


56  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


MISCELLANEOUS 

Seed  Testing  Laboratory  (W.  C.  Etheridge,  M/iss  Bertha  Hite,  Miss 
Helen  Averitt,  Miss  Salome  Comstock). — A total  of  2,644  lots  of  seed  were 
tested  by  the  Seed  Testing  Laboratory  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1920. 
Of  these  lots,  2,117  were  tested  for  Missouri  farmers  and  seedsmen;  6 for 
the  Missouri  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  in  connection  with  its  seed  in- 
spection for  the  administration  of  the  state  seed  law;  and  55  for  the  Cus- 
tom House.  In  addition  468  lots  were  tested  for  farmers  and  seedsmen  of 
other  states,  as  follows:  Iowa  219,  Nebraska  71,  Kansas  56,  Oklahoma  27, 

Colorado  24,  Arkansas  22,  Texas  20,  South  Dakota  19,  Illinois  4,  New  York 
2,  Wyoming  2,  Kentucky  1,  Tennessee  1.  On  all  of  these  lots  of  seed  a 
total  of  3,918  tests  were  made. 

On  account  of  the  excellent  condition  of  seed  corn  in  the  spring  of  1920, 
very  few  samples  reached  the  laboratory  for  a test  of  germination.  In 
former  years,  when  less  favorable  conditions  have  prevailed,  the  work  in 
testing  corn  has  been  very  heavy.  The  Laboratory  is  therefore  ready  to 
make  a very  large  number  of  germination  tests  of  seed  corn  in  an  emer- 
gency, although  in  normal  times,  it  tests  mainly  small  seeds,  clovers  and 
grasses. 

Under  the  instruction  of  the  Laboratory,  officials  of  the  Missouri  Corn 
Growers’  Association  tested  for  germination  in  the  spring  of  1920,  the 
growers’  samples  from  18,000  bushels  of  seed  corn.  Of  this  total  lot  of 
corn,  12,000  bushels  were  approved  and  sold  under  the  official  tag  of  the 
Association.  During  August  and  September,  1920,  the  Laboratory  tested 
for  the  Association  the  growers’  samples  from  a large  quantity  of  seed 
wheat,  of  which  about  15,000  bushels  were  finally  approved  for  seed  by  the 
Association.  It  may  therefore  be  said  that  the  Laboratory  is  cooperating 
closely  with  all  agencies  whose  purpose  is  to  promote  the  production  and 
use  of  better  seed  in  Missouri. 

The  Production  and  Distribution  of  Bacteria  for  Legumes  (Wm.  A.  Al- 
brecht).— That  the  importance  of  thorough  inoculation  is  becoming  well 
recognized  is  shown  by  the  numerous  inquiries  for  culture  of  pure  legume 
bacteria  the  station  receives  annually.  During  the  last  year,  a total  of 
5,861  cultures  were  produced  and  distributed  to  approximately  900  differ- 
ent individuals.  The  varieties  of  legumes  for  which  inoculation  was  ordered 
included  the  following  number  of  cultures: 


Soybeans  2,458 

Alfalfa  2,244 

Sweet  Clover  601 

Cowpeas  223 

Red  Clover  173 

Peanut  81 

Canada  Pea  23 

Hairy  Vetch  18 

Velvet  Bean  17 

Alsike  Clover  15 

Navy  Bean  6 

White  Clover  - 2 


Total  5, ,861 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


57 


Some  apprehension  arose  with  regard  to  using  the  cultures  on  sweet 
clover  seeded  in  the  early  spring  when  frosts  are  still  common.  Tests  on 
freezing  the  cultures  failed  to  show  any  serious  harm  to  their  viability  by 
this  treatment. 

As  a result  of  this  distribution  the  farmers  introducing  new  legumes 
are  gaining  better  success  according  to  their  own  reports.  The  large  num- 
ber of  cultures  sent  out  for  soybeans,  sweet  clover  and  alfalfa  show  that 
these  less  common  crops  are  being  more  widely  cultivated  and  with  thorough 
attention  to  their  requirement  for  inoculation.  Favorable  reports  are 
numerous  and  show  that  the  need  of  legumes  for  proper  bacteria  is  becom- 
ing more  nearly  common  knowledge. 

Official  Testing  of  Dairy  Cows  (A.  C.  Ragsdale,  Chas.  W.  Turner). — 
During  the  year  just  completed,  667  cows  were  officially  tested  for  70  breed- 
ers of  purebreds  in  22  counties  of  the  state.  Supervisors  made  359  visits  to 
breeders  and  conducted  2,442  two-day  tests  and  133  seven-day  tests.  This 
is  an  increase  of  over  65  per  cent  of  the  number  of  cows  officially  tested, 
118  per  cent  increase  in  the  number  of  breeders  making  the  official 
tests,  33  per  cent  increase  in  the  number  of  two-day  tests  and  166  per  cent 
increase  in  the  number  of  seven  or  thirty-day  tests. 

The  following  table  shows  the  progress  of  this  work  during  the  past 
five  years: 

Fiscal  Year  Ending  June  30 


1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

No. 

cows  tested  

336 

413 

349 

403 

667 

No. 

breeders  represented  .... 

24 

26 

28 

32 

70 

No. 

two-day  tests  

1744 

2072 

1473 

1830 

2442 

No. 

seven-day  tests  

22 

47 

25 

50 

133 

Beginning  in  September,  1919,  a monthly  summary  of  the  progress  of 
cows  on  test  has  been  made.  Included  in  this  report  are  the  records  of  all 
cows  producing  over  three  pounds  of  fat  during  the  two  days  while  being 
tested  by  official  supervisors.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  rapid  increase 
in  the  number  of  so-called  “Honor  Cows.”  Starting  with  twelve  in  Sep- 
tember the  number  has  gradually  increased,  reaching  the  peak  in  May  when 
82  cows  secured  honors.  This  information  has  gone  into  the  hands  of  300 
Missouri  breeders  of  purebred  dairy  cattle  each  month  as  well  as  to  the  farm 
publications  of  the  state  who  have  generously  contributed  space  for  the 
publication  of  this  information. 

Fertilizer  Control  (F.  B.  Mumford,  L.  G.  Haigh). — During  the  fall  of 
1919  and  the  spring  of  1920,  forty-three  counties  were  visited  in  Missouri 
by  inspectors.  One  hundred  and  eight  towns  were  visited  and  about  twenty 
additional  samples  were  analyzed  for  farmers,  dealers  and  county  agents. 
About  one  hundred  and  fifty  samples  for  limestone  for  agricultural  purposes 
were  tested  and  the  report  of  these  findings  were  published.  Results  of 
the  inspection  indicate  the  conditions  affecting  the  conformity  of  the 
composition  of  the  fertilizer  to  its  guarantees  of  383  samples  of  fertilizer 
and  nearly  150  samples  of  limestone  for  purity.  It  also  lists  the  brands  of 
fertilizer  registered  for  sale  in  1920  and  the  approximate  sale  of  fertilizer 
in  the  state  by  counties  for  the  years  1918-1919. 


58  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


Nursery  Inspection  (Leonard  Haseman,  K.  C.  Sullivan,  S.  R.  McLane): 
Nursery  Inspection 


Nursery  inspected  93 

Nurseries  certified  . 80 

Nurseries  infested  with  San  Jose  scale... 8 

Total  acreage  of  nursery  stock  inspected  1468.75 

Number  of  counties  in  which  nurseries  were 

inspected  ...... . 40 

Number  of  men  making  inspection  4 

Number  of  cases  of  foreign  stock  inspected 67 

Number  of  foreign  plants  inspected  442,000 

Number  of  counties  in  which  these  foreign  ship- 
ments were  inspected  6 

Papers  Issued 

Inspection  certificates  issued  103 

Dealers  23 

Agents  permits  121 

Growers  permits  , 157 


Manufacture  and  Distribution  of  Hog  Cholera  Serum  (Dr.  O.  S.  Cris- 
ler,  Superintendent  University  Serum  Plant). — The  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  has  been  manufacturing  and  distributing  serum  to  farmers  and 
veterinarians  for  many  years.  In  the  beginning  small  quantities  of  anti- 
hog cholera  serum  were  manufactured  and  distributed  to  farmers  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  whether  or  not  the  anti-cholera  serum  was  a practi- 
cal treatment  for  the  disease  of  hog  cholera.  So  important  was  the  work 
and  so  successful  the  original  investigations,  that  in  1909  the  Legislature  ap- 
propriated $10,000.00  for  the  production  and  distribution  of  anti-hog  cholera 
serum.  This  was  distributed  free  and  the  $10,000.00  appropriated  for  the 
purpose  was  soon  exhausted  after  which  the  Experiment  Station  furnished 
serum  at  cost  of  manufacture. 

The  General  Assembly  meeting  in  January  1911,  made  an  appropriation 
of  $25,000.00  to  supply  serum  to  farmers.  This  appropriation  was  ex- 
hausted in  the  Spring  of  1912  and  from  that  time  on  the  Station  made  a 
small  charge  covering  cost  of  production  for  the  serum  distributed.  The 
47th  General  Assembly  in  1913,  made  an  appropriation  of  $50,000.00  for  the 
purchase  of  land  and  buildings  with  equipment  for  the  efficient  production 
of  anti-cholera  serum.  With  the  $50,000.00  there  was  purchased  a farm  of 
87.72  acres  two  miles  from  Columbia  at  a cost  of  $100.00  an  acre,  a modern 
laboratory  including  a refrigeration  plant  and  virus  laboratory  with  yards 
adjoining,  a barn  for  the  proper  care  of  animals  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
serum,  a deep  well  and  necessary  fences  and  yards  were  constructed  with 
the  remainder  of  the  appropriation. 

At  the  present  time,  1920,  serum  is  produced  at  a cost  of  l^c  per  cubic 
centimeter  and  this  is  the  price  charged  to  farmers  and  veterinarians.  The 
equipment  of  the  laboratory  has  been  improved  from  time  to  time,  until  at 
present  the  Experiment  Statoin  has  one  of  the  best  equipped  and  most  con- 
venient laboratories  for  the  production  of  anti-cholera  serum  in  the  country. 
All  buildings  and  equipment  are  in  good  state  of  repair  and  the  farm  is 
being  improved  as  rapidly  as  funds  will  permit. 


What  the  Station  Is  Doing  for  Missouri 


59 


The  total  amount  of  serum  produced  from  1909  to  1919,  has  been  28,- 
592,973  c.  c.  The  production  by  years  is  indicated  in  the  following  table: 


Year 


No.  c.  c. 


1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 


527,701 

1,032,248 

2,743,099 

4,104,311 

6,993,702 

4,060,960 

3,562,799 

1,557,250 

254,375 

1,569,001 

2,187,527 


28,592,973  c.  c. 


It  is  not  the  policy  of  the  Experiment  Station  to  push  the  sale  of  serum 
in  a manner  to  seriously  compete  with  the  private  manufacturers  of  anti- 
cholera serum,  but  to  produce  the  highest  grade  of  serum  that  it  is  possible 
to  produce  at  a minimum  price.  This  serum  is  at  all  times  available  for 
purchase  by  Missouri  citizens.  Undoubtedly  this  policy  has  resulted  in 
keeping  the  price  of  serum  down  to  a reasonable  cost  in  the  state.  In  sea- 
sons of  great  emergency  it  would  be  possible  to  greatly  increase  the  pro- 
duction of  serum.  Thus  the  plant  may  be  considered  in  the  nature  of  a 
state  insurance  against  serious  outbreaks  of  hog  cholera. 


60  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  179 


FINANCIAL  STATEMENT 

Dr.  Hatch  Adams 

Fund  Fund 

To  balance  from  appropriations  for  1918-1919: 

Receipts  from  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States, 
as  per  appropriations  for  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1920,  under  acts  of  Congress  approved 
March  2.  1887  (Hatch  Fund)  and  March  16,  1906 

(Adams  Fund)  $15,000.00  $15,000.00 


Cr.  abstract 


By  salaries  

1 

9,107.63 

6,292.38 

Labor  

2 

1,498.09 

1,990.40 

Publications  

3 

000.00 

omit 

Postage  and  stationery  

4 

206.76 

32.19 

Freight  and  express  

5 

299.89 

229.25 

Heat,  light,  water,  and  power  

6 

79.59 

117.14 

Chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies  

7 

195.70 

498.50 

Seeds,  plants  and  sundry  supplies  

8 

536.02 

373  Of 

Fertilizers  

9 

000.00 

28.00 

Feeding  stuffs  

10 

2,553.67 

3,861.01 

Library  

11 

000.00 

6.00 

Tools,  machinery  and  appliances  

12 

33.13 

2.25 

Furniture  and  fixtures  

13 

83.03 

000.00 

Scientific  apparatus  and  specimens  

14 

90.00 

1,391.31 

Live  stock  

15 

85.15 

4.50 

Traveling  expenses  

16 

103.56 

78.79 

Contingent  expenses  

17 

000.00 

000.00 

Buildings  and  land  

18 

127.78 

94.90 

Balance  

000.00 

000.00 

Total  $15,000.00  $15,000.00 


We,  the  undersigned,  duly  appointed  Auditors  of  the  Corporation,  do 
hereby  certify  that  we  have  exained  the  books  and  accounts  of  the  Mis- 
souri Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1920;  that  we  have  found  the  same  well  kept  and  classified  as  above;  that 
the  balance  brought  forward  from  the  preceding  year  was  $ none  on  the 
Hatch  Fund  and  $ none  on  the  Adams  Fund;  that  the  receipts  for  the 
year  from  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  were  $15,000.00,  under  the 
act  of  Congress  of  March  2,  1887,  and  $15,000.00  under  the  act  of  Congress 
of  March  16,  1906,  and  the  corresponding  disbursements  $15,000.00  and 
$15,000.00;  for  all  of  which  proper  vouchers  are  on  file  and  have  been  by 
us  examined  and  found  correct,  leaving  balances  of  $ none  and  $ none. 

And  we  further  certify  that  the  expenditures  have  been  solely  for 
the  purposes  set  forth  in  the  acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2,  1887, 
and  March  16,  1906,  and  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  said  acts,  re- 
spectively. 

Signed: 

EDWARD  E.  BROWN 

Attest:  Auditors 

LESLIE  COWAN  Acting  as  Auditor  for  the 

Custodian.  Curators,  University  of  Missouri. 


Cluster  of  more  than  a thousand  bats  on  a Missouri  cave  ceiling. 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
FEBRUARY,  1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  180 


BAT  GUANO  AND  ITS  FER- 
TILIZING VALUE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

the;  curators  of  the;  university  of  Missouri 

EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BEANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

February,  1921 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 
C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.2 
R.  M.  Smith  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedmann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  SiEvEking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

G.  W.  York,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  F.  Ahmann,  A.  B. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B .S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumeord,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Barnard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  Edinger,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

. J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 
C.  Ragsdale.  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

. W.  Swett,  A.  M. 
m.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 
muEl  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

O.  C.  McBride, 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  StadlEr,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  Gromer,  A.  M. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

Ben  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  -SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crtsler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

. George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 

R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S.,  Sercretary 

S.  B.  ShirkEy,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Director 
A.  A.  Teffrey,  A.  B.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 

Miss  Bertha  Hite,1  Seed  Testing  Lab- 
oratory. 


Un  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
2On  leave  of  absence 


Bat  Guano  and  Its  Fertilizing  Value 

Wm.  A.  Albrecht 

Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

The  high  cost  of  manufactured  fertilizers  and  the  shortage  of  nitrogen- 
ous materials,  together  with  transportation  troubles  of  the  past  few  years, 
have  put  precarious  conditions  about  the  farmer  dependent  on  commer- 
cial fertilizer.  Even  the  man  who  has  manure  finds  that  his  supply  is  ex- 
hausted all  too  soon  and  that  to  meet  the  demands  of  increased  produc- 
tion he  must  use  commercial  plant  food  either  as  single  element  or  as 
mixed  products  to  make  up  the  manure  shortage.  Such  exigencies  de- 
mand that  every  possible  source  of  raw  material  with  fertilizing  value  be 
searched  out  and  developed.  This  demand  has  already  brought  increased 
development  in  utilization  of  garbage,  leather  scrap,  feathers,  wool  waste 
and  many  other  forms  of  waste  products.  Garbage  alone  supplied  for  com- 
mercial fertilizers  in  1917  almost  124,000  tons  of  nitrogenous  matter.  Bat 
guano,  the  bat  waste  or  accumulated  excreta  of  those  small  winged  animals 
in  caves,  should  have  attention  for  its  possibilities  in  this  respect.  It  con- 
tains much  nitrogen,  and  appreciable  amounts  of  phosphorous  and  potas- 
sium— the  elements  for  which  fertilizers  are  desired.  In  addition,  it  has 
such  physical  properties  as  to  require  no  special  treatment  other  than 
drying,  and  adapts  itself  readily  for  fertilizer  use.  Since  caves  with  bats 
inhabiting  them  are  common  in  Missouri,  since  quantities  of  bat  guano 
estimated  to  exceed  16,000  tons  have  been  located  in  caves  of  Porto  Rico 
(3)*;  and  since  considerable  shipments  of  such  material  have  already 
come  up  from  Mexico  (5)  to  go  into  fertilizers,  a brief  study  of  bat  guano 
and  tests  of  its  fertilizing  value  were  undertaken. 

PROPERTIES  OF  BAT  GUANO 

Physical  Condition.  Bat  guano  in  the  strictest  sense  is  not  a guano 
since  this  term  usually  refers  to  accumulated  bird  excreta;  but  in  the  more 
general  sense,  referring  to  nitrogenous  fertilizers  as  a class,  its  use  is  ap- 
propriate. As  a pellet-formed  excrement  of  small  mammals  this  guano 
requires  no  grinding  or  special  preparation  to  reduce  it.  Rock  particles 
from  disintegrating  cave  walls  are  usually  mixed  with  it  but  these  are 
easily  sifted  out.  When  completely  dry,  guano  is  dusty  and  too  light  for 
mechanical  distribution  but  this  difficulty  can  be  overcome  by  mixing 
heavier  fertilizer  salts  with  it.  Such  practice  would  not  only  improve  the 
physical  condition  but  would  permit  adjustment  of  its  chemical  composi- 
tion more  nearly  to  fertilizer  standards  as  well.  When  left  to  retain  a 
good  percentage  of  moisture  guano  distributes  readily;  so,  if  used  alone, 
incomplete  drying  makes  it  scatter  nicely.  As  it  comes  from  the  caves 
this  guano  may  contain  varying  amounts  of  water,  but  the  water  disap- 
pears readily  on  exposure  and  there  can  be  no  more  serious  objection  to 


Numbers  refer  to  literature  cited  in  Bibliography  on  page  15. 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  180 


this  feature  than  to  its  other  physical  characteristics,  which  offer  no  great 
handicap  to  using  bat  guano  as  a fertilizer. 

Chemical  Composition.  The  chemical  composition  of  bat  guano  like 
that  of  all  animal  manures 'is  determined  by  the  animal  itself  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  food  it  ea':s.  The  cow,  for  example,  with  four  stomachs,  works 
over  the  feed  stuffs  differently  from  the  horse.  “The  digestive  apparatus 
(1)  of  the  bat  is  very  simple.  The  stomach  is  simple  with  a small  fundus. 
The  intestine  is  short  measuring  but  one  and  one-half  times  the  length 
of  the  body — The  foods  cannot  be  so  highly  simplified  by  making 
this  short  passage  through  the  animal  and  the  excreta  not  so  greatly 
changed  from  the  composition  of  the  food  itself. 

“Bats  (1)  feed  exclusively  on  crepuscular  and  nocturnal  insects  and  their 
diet  is  made  up  of  mosquitoes,  gnats,  moths  and  even  the  heavily  mailed 
nocturnal  Coleoptera,  all  of  which  fall  victims  in  large  numbers.”  This 
means  that  the  diet  which  is  exclusively  animal  tissue  must  contain  much 
protein  and  consequently  much  nitrogen.  In  the  bat’s  simple  digestive 
system  this  highly  nitrogenous  food  cannot  be  changed  greatly  and  the 
feces  must  carry  much  of  this  element. 

Under  the  microscope  bat  guano  shows  insect  remains  almost  exclu- 
sively— save  for  some  wooly  body  combings  and  occasional  skeletal  parts 
of  dead  bats,  most  of  these  being  the  hard  internal  parts  and  body  cov- 
erings or  skeletons.  These  are  made  up  of  a compound  called  “chitin”, 
chemically  related  to  cartilage  in  the  skeleton  and  mucin  in  the  skin  of 
larger,  vertebrate  animals.  Chitin  (8)  is  indigestible  by  chickens  and 
seems  to  pass  through  bats  also  with  little  or  no  alterations.  The  exact 
proportion  of  nitrogen  in  chitin  is  not  known,  but  regardless  of  what  this 
figure  may  be,  the  excreta  made  from  feeding  on  it  must  be  comparatively 
rich  in  nitrogen. 

The  composition  of  fresh  guano  is  in  accord  with  the  foregoing  deduc- 
tions. Samples  whose  form  indicated  recent  deposition  were  collected 
near  Zebra  and  Rocheport,  Mo.,  and  gave  10.3  per  cent  and  10.4  per  cent 
of  nitrogen  respectively  on  analysis  of  the  dry  matter.  Such  composition 
is  not  permanent  however.  Age  brings  decomposition  with  various  changes 
both  in  physical  and  chemical  make-up.  Fresh  guano  is  black  when  moist 
and  deep  brown  when  dry.  Older  guano  may  be  reddish,  pale  brown  or 
even  gray  when  dry.  The  nitrogen  becomes  soluble  and  is  readily  lost 
by  leaching.  It  can  scarcely  escape  as  ammonia  gas,  because  of  the  large 
amounts  of  water  always  present  to  dissolve  it  and  the  great  absorption 
by  the  extensive  surface  of  such  finely  divided  material.  Because  of  de- 
composition and  leaching,  the  fertilizer  value  of  guano  for  its  nitrogen 
decreases  with  age,  and  a deposit  is  not  well  supplied  with  this  element 
merely  because  it  was  rich  in  this  respect  when  fresh. 

There  is  an  irregularity  in  guano  composition  with  the  depth  of  the  de- 
posit, since  deeper  layers  are  the  older.  There  is  a decrease  in  per  cent 
of  nitrogen  and  a change  in  color,  but  usually  an  increase  in  phosphorus 
percentage  with  successively  deeper  layers.  The  latter  element  is  not  so 
soluble  and  remains  during  decomposition  while  other  materials  are  re- 
moved. An  old  deposit  in  Marvel  Cave  of  Stone  County,  to  which  evi- 
dently no  recent  additions  had  been  made,  contained  5.90  per  cent  of  nitro- 


Bat  Guano  and  Its  Fertilizing  Value 


5 


gen  in  the  upper  foot,  but  only  3.46  per  cent  in  the  next  layer  of  the  same 
depth  below.  The  analyses  for  phosphoric  acid  for  these  layers  were  3.89 
per  cent  and'  6.25  per  cent  respectively,  a relation  to  depth  opposite  that 
for  nitrogen.  This  variation  in  chemical  composition  of  different  layers 
is  responsible  for  great  irregularity  in  bat  guano  carelessly  mined  and 
poorly  mixed,  and  has  made  many  fertilizer  concerns  hesitate  to  offer 
full  price  for  this  material. 

In  fresh  guano  the  nitrogen  occurs  mainly  as  a part  of  some  com- 
plex organic  compound.  Decomposition  changes  this  form  of  nitrogen 
into  the  ammonia  and  nitrate  or  saltpeter  forms.  It  was  for  the  salt- 
peter, to  be  used  in  making  gunpowder,  that  guano  deposits  in  many 
caves  in  Missouri  were  worked  during  the  Civil  War.  (4)  In  the  samples 
gathered  >and  examined  in  this  study  little  nitrate  was  found,  due  no  doubt 
to  the  fact  that  most  of  them  were  collected  from  caves  having  water 
which  carried  it  away. 

Ammonia  nitrogen  occurs  in  fresh  material  in  rather  unusual  quantities 
Samples  were  found  to  contain  as  much  as  1.98  per  cent  of  ammonia  nitro- 
gen when  the  total  nitrogen  content  was  10.4  per  cent.  Some  nitrogen 
may  have  been  hydrolysed  into  this  form  during  the  process  of  analysis; 
but,  even  so,  this  large  percentage  indicates  that  a good  proportion  of  the 
nitrogen  is  in  a simple,  unstable  form  and  is  readily  subject  to  agencies 
converting  it  to  soluble  forms  such  as  ammonia.  In  samples  taken  from 
older  deposits  or  at  greater  depths  below  the  surface  of  the  accumulation 
there  was  less  ammonia.  Nitrate  nitrogen  was  also  lower  in  older  de- 
posits. By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  total  nitrogen  in  guano  was  in  the 
more  stable  complex  organic  form.  As  a general  rule  it  was  found  that 
the  ammonia  decreased  with  age  except  in  very  fresh  guano,  while  the 
nitrate  form  was  almost  negligible  in  the  majority  of  the  deposits  studied. 

Not  only  the  nitrogen,  but  phosphorus  and  potash  in  guano  have  some 
fertilizing  value  although  generally  in  the  newer  deposits  these  are  of  less 
importance  than  the  nitrogen.  In  older  deposits  they  take  on  consider- 
able significance. 


ANALYSES  OF  BAT  GUANO 

Nitrogen.  In  Table  I are  given  analyses  of  guano  from  various  caves 
in  Missouri,  tabulated  for  their  total  nitrogen  content.  Determinations 
were  made  on  samples  in  air-dry  condition,  containing  approximately  8 
per  cent  hygroscopic  water. 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  180 


Tabee  I.  Nitrogen  in  Bat  Guano  brom  Various  Missouri  Caves 


Location  of  Cave 
Town 

County 

Sample 

Number: 

Per  cent 
Nitrogen . 

Notch* 

Stone 

1 

8.69t* 

Known  as  Marvel  Cave. 

2 

5.90 

Sampled  at  2 ft.  depth. 

3 

.31 

Sampled  at  3 ft.  depth. 

4 

5.24 

Sampled  at  2 ft.  depth. 

5 

3.46 

Composite  samples;  6,  7,  8,  9,  10 

6 

2.91 

and  11,  taken  in  different  parts 

7 

3.66 

of  cave  after  guano  had  been 

8 

3.91 

dug  and  mixed. 

9 

3.98 

10 

3.03 

11 

2.71 

Colleda 

Camden 

1 

7.52 

Nearly  fresh  guano. 

2 

2.32 

Sampled  at  two  feet  depth. 

3 

1.77 

Saturated  with  water. 

Ink 

Shannon 

1 

7.36 

Depth  0-6  inches. 

2 

6.42 

Depth  7-12  inches. 

3 

1.96 

Depth  13-16  inches. 

Richland  (7) 

Pulaski 

1 

1.86 

2 

6.34 

3 

8.78 

Salem 

Dent 

1 

7.98 

2 

1.13 

Phillipsburg  (7) 

Laclede 

2.87 

Hoecker 

Miller 

7.30 

63  lbs.  water  per  100  of  fresh  gua- 

Laquey (7) 

Pulaski 

4.71 

no. 

Leasburg 

Crawford 

2.06 

Montgomery  City,  (7) 

Montg’ry 

1.45 

Rocheport 

Boone 

10.44 

1.97  per  cent  as  ammonia,  no  ni- 

Zebra 

Camden 

10.35 

trate  nitrogen. 

Oregon  (6) 

8.10 

*Exact  geographical  locations  were  seldom  available,  hence  the  locations  are 
given  by  postoffice  nearby. 

-j-Data  above  are  based  on  air-dry  weights. 


Table  II  gives  the  content  in  phosphorus  and  potash  for  the ' sam- 
ples analysed,  and  indicates  that  the  phosphorus  must  not  be  neglected 
when  considering  the  fertilizer  value  of  bat  guano. 

Tables  I and  II  show  that  there  is  a wide  variation  in  composition 
of  guano.  In  buying  it  for  fertilizer  one  must  be  cautious  and  purchase 
solely  on  the  basis  of  guaranteed  analyses  with  respect  to  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potassium,  as  well  as  its  moisture  content.  With  percentage 
ranges  from  0.3  to  10.4  for  nitrogen,  from  2.5  to  7.9  for  phosphoric  acid, 
from  0.36  to  1.9  for  potash  and  from  8 to  50  for  moisture,  it  is  evident 
that  no  small  financial  hazard  is  involved  in  purchasing  such  material  in 
the  hope  of  putting  it  on  a market  closely  guarded  by  State  Fertilizer 
Control  laws. 


Bat  Guano  and  Its  Fertilizing  Value 


7 


Table  II.  Phosphorus  and  Potash  in  Bat  Guano  from  Some  Missouri 

Caves 


Location 

Town 

jf  Cave 

County 

Sample 

Per  cent: 

Remarks. 

PHOSPHORUS 

p2o5 

Notch  

Stone 

7 

6.63* 

Known  as  Marvel  Cave 

9 

6.27 

1L 

5.56 

Hoecker  

Miller 

2.50 

Leasburg  

Crawford  .... 

7.91 

Oregon 

2.06 

By  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

POTASH 

k2o 

Notch  

Stone 

8 

.36 

Known  as  Marvel  Cave 

Oregon 

.58 

By  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Hoecker  

Miller 

1.90 

*Data  are  based  on  air-dry  weights. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  BAT  GUANO  AS  A FERTILIZER 

Ammonification.  Since  nitrogen  is  the  prominent  constituent  of  most 
bat  guano,  studies  were  conducted  on  its  changes  within  the  soil  as  com- 
pared with  the  nitrogen  changes  of  other  fertilizer  materials  such  as  tank- 
age and  dried  blood. 

To  test  the  ammonification  of  guano  100-gram  portions  of  Marshall 
silt  loam  were  treated  with  1.5  gm.  guano  and  compared  with  the  same 
soil  weights  given  1.118  gm.  dried  blood  and  1.859  gm.  tankage  separately. 
The  guano  had  10.6  per  cent,  the  dried  blood  13.40  per  cent  and  the  tankage 
8.06  per  cent  nitrogen.  The  weights  of  these  materials  taken  were  such  as 
to  add  exactly  150  mgm.  of  nitrogen.  Determinations  of  the  ammonia*  in 
the  soil  were  made  at  the  outset  and  at  intervals  of  seven  and  eleven  days 
with  the  average  results  for  duplicate  determinations  given  in  Table  III. 


Table  III.  Ammonia  Nitrogen  in  Soils  Treated  with  Bat  Guano,  Dried 

Blood  and  Tankage. 


Added  in  At  7 days  1 1 days  later. 

Treatment  Fertilizer  Outset  later 


mgm.  mgm.  mgm.  mgm. 

Soil  Alone  None  2.660  2.359  2.484 

Soil  and  Tankage  150  10.893  25.752  36.842 

Soil  and  Dried  Blood  150  3.814  ' 25.200  40.862 

Soil  and  Guano  150  34.110  22.389  36.997 


*The  guano  used  in  all  subsequent  experiments  contained  10.4  per  cent  total 
nitrogen,  of  which  1.97  per  cent  occured  as  ammonia  and  scarcely  a trace  as  nitrate. 
This  was  a high  grade  guano  and  a nitrogen  content  above  the  average  shown  in 

Table  I. 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  180 


Table  III  shows  that  soil  treated  with  guano  contained  much  ammonia 
at  the  start  but  less  a week  later,  because,  no  doubt,  of  its  being  convert- 
ed into  the  nitrate  form.  Four  days  later  the  ammonia  content  increased 
again,  equalling  that  of  the  tankage  and  almost  that  of  the  blood.  This  in- 
dicates that  the  nitrogen  in  guano  is  readily  converted  into  ammonia  and 
is  subject  to  the  changes  undergone  by  other  nitrogenous  fertilizer  constit- 
uents. 

Nitrification.  To  test  further  transformation  of  guano  nitrogen 
through  nitrification  in  the  soil,  studies  were  made  comparing  nitrate  pro- 


Fig.  1. — Ammonia  Accumulation  in  Soil  Treated  with  Bat  Guano  Compared  with 
that  of  Tankage  and  Dried  Blood. 


duction  by  guano  with  that  from  dried  blood  and  tankage.  One  hundred 
gram  lots  of  Marshall  silt  loam  soil  treated  with  one  gram  of  calcium 
carbonate  were  made  up  in  jelly  tumblers.  Series  of  nine  tumblers  each 
were  treated  separately  with  one  gram  of  guano,  one  of  dried  blood  and 
one  of  tankage  and  kept  at  optimum  moisture.  Duplicate  determinations 
were  made  on  ammonia  nitrogen  and  nitrate  nitrogen  at  the  start  and  at 
intervals  of  two  weeks  over  a period  of  sixteen  weeks.  Table  IV  gives 
the  data  of  the  above  determinations.  Table  V shows  the  percentage  of 
nitrogen  in  each  substance  that  was  changed  to  nitrates.  Figure  1 is  a 
graphical  representation  of  data  for  ammonia  production  given  in  Table 
IV.  Figure  2 shows  in  a similar  way  the  nitrification  data  from  the  same 
table,  while  in  figure  3 the  curves  reproduce  Table  V. 


Bat  Guano  and  Its  Fertilizing  Value 


9 


• on  in  Weeks 

Fig.  2. — Nitrification  of  Guano  in  Soil  Compared  with  Dried  Blood  and  Tank- 
age. 


Duration  in  Weeks 

Fig.  3. — Percent  of  Total  Nitrogen  in  Guano  Changed  to  Nitrates  as  compared 
with  that  of  Dried  Blood  and  Tankage. 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  180 


Table  IV.  Nitrogen  in  Soils  Treated  with  Bat  Guano  as  Compared  with 
Soils  Treated  with  Dried  Blood  and  with  Tankage. 


Ammonia  Nitrogen. 

Treatment  Ferti- 

lizer 

At 

After 

After 

After 

After 

After 

After 

After 

After 

added 

outset 

2 wks 

4 wks 

6 wks 

8 wks 

10  wks 

12  wks 

14  wks 

16  wks 

gm. 

mgm. 

mgm. 

mgm. 

mgm. 

mgm. 

mgm. 

mgm. 

mgm. 

mgm. 

Soil  

1 

1.28 

1.35 

.80 

1.40 

1.14 

1.30 

.57 

1.30 

.87 

Soil  and  tankage 

1 

3.66 

12.84 

9.96 

1.35 

2.13 

2.58 

1.68 

1.53 

1.95 

Soil  and  dried 
blood 

1 

2.43 

26.30 

39.13 

22.93 

4.81 

3.31 

1.30 

1.73 

2.05 

Soil  and  Guano 

1 

12.29 

13.70 

11.34 

4.41 

2.28 

2.73 

1.45 

1.82 

1.83 

Soil  

1 

1.11 

1.43 

Nitrate 

2.22 

Nitrogen 

2.35 

2.68 

(*) 

3.55 

4.33 

4.57 

Soil  and  tankage 

1 

.79 

1.24 

4.41 

12.19 

12.49 

(*) 

15.03 

15.21 

15.68 

Soil  and  dried 
blood 

1 

.81 

1.29 

2.94 

17.08 

31.89 

(*) 

34.33 

36.42 

35.49 

Soil  and  Guano 

1 

7.50 

7.76 

9.62 

15.08 

17.23 

(*) 

17.52 

18.32 

23.66 

Table  V.  Per 

Cent 

O 

o 

Hi 

> 

r1 

Nitrogen  in 
Nitrates. 

Tested 

Material 

Changed  to 

Treatment 

After 
2 wks. 

After 
4 wks. 

After 
6 wks. 

After 
8 wks. 

After 
10  wks. 

After 
12  wks. 

After  Afer 

14  wks.  16  wks. 

Soil  and  tankage 

.55 

4.49 

13.88 

14.50 

(*) 

17.66 

17.85  18.45 

Soil  and  dried  blood 

.36 

1.29 

12.14 

23.19 

(*) 

25.01 

26.57  25.88 

Soil  and  guano 

.24 

1.74 

7.15 

9.17 

(*) 

9.45 

10.20  15.24  • 

*Tenth  week  determinations  in  this  experiment  were  lost. 

fOne  gram  sample  of  each  fertilizer  was  used  analysing  as  follows  for  nitrogen;  tank- 
age 8.06  per  cent,  dried  blood,  13.40  per  cent,  guano  10.60  per  cent. 


Brief  study  of  the  data  and  graphs  given  shows  that  in  the  produc- 
tion of  ammonia  and  its  change  to  nitrates,  fresh  guano  is  a very  efficient 
fertilizer.  It  does  not  produce  as  high  a concentration  of  ammonia  as 
dried  blood,  but  higher  than  tankage.  Its  rate  of  nitrification  is  similar 
to  that  of  tankage,  as  is  shown  in  figure  2 by  the  curve  for  this  process 
in  guano  which  parallels  that  for  tankage  very  closely  but  is  slightly  high- 
er on  the  scale.  Guano  does  not  equal  dried  blood  in  nitrate  production, 
neither  in  rate  nor  in  total  amount,  which  might  well  be  expected  from 
the  much  higher  initial  nitrogen  content  of  the  blood.  It  does,  how- 
ever, equal  tankage  when  its  change  of  nitrogen  into  soluble  form  is  con- 
sidered. 

Pot  Experiments  With  Bat  Guano.  To  test  further  the  fertilizing  ef- 
fects of  bat  guano,  pot  cultures  were  run  comparing  it  with  ammonium  sul- 
fate, tankage  and  dried  blood.  Applications  were  made  at  the  following 
rates  of  nitrogen  per  2,000,000  pounds  of  soil;  ammonium  sulfate  100  pounds, 


Bat  Guano  and  Its  Fertilizing  Value 


11 


dried  blood  200  pounds,  tankage  200  pounds  and  guano  100  pounds  in  one 
series  and  200  pounds  in  another.  The  soil  used  was  a Lindley  silt  loam 
with  a low  nitrogen  content.  It  was  treated  with  fertilizers  at  the  rate 
of  2 tons  limestone,  300  pounds  acid  phosphate  and  50  pounds  muriate  of 
potash  per  2,000,000  pounds  of  soil  in  an  attempt  to  make  nitrogen  the 
limiting  element.  Duplicate  pots  were  used  with  oats  as  the  crop.  The 
results  of  the  test  are  shown  by  the  total  crop  weights  of  duplicate  tests 
given  in  Table  VI. 


Table  VI.  Weights  of  Oats  on  Pots  Treated  With  Bat  Guano  in  Com- 
parison with  Other  Nitrogenous  Fertilizers. 


Equivalent  of  ni- 

Treatment  trogen  added.  Grain  Straw  Total  Increase 

(Lbs.  per  two  Crop  by 

million),  treatment. 


gm.  gm.  gm.  gm. 

None  7.45  17.85  25.30 

Ammonium  sulfate  100  8.60  19.70  28.30  3.00 

Dried  blood  200  11.35  21.70  33.05  7.75 

Tankage  200  12.39  21.66  34.05  8.75 

Bat  Guano  100  12.96  20.04  33.00  7.70 

Bat  Guano  200  12.06  25.99  38.05  12.75 


The  results  of  pot  cultures  show  that,  when  measured  by  a crop  of 
oats,  the  application  of  bat  guano  at  a rate  of  100  pounds  of  nitrogen  per 
acre  was  about  equal  to  dried  blood  and  tankage  at  twice  that  rate.  This 
was  true  for  both  seed  and  straw  production  shown  by  the  data  in  Table 
VI.  That  the  addition  of  even  the  smaller  application  of  bat  guano  im- 
proved the  crop  over  the  check  is  shown  in  Plate  I,  and  that  such  treat- 


Plate  I. — Pot  cultures  with  oats  showing  the  effect  of  bat  guano  as  a fertilizer. 
Duplicate  treatments  from  left  to  right  are  check,  bat  guano  100  pounds,  and  bat 
guano  200  pounds  nitrogen  per  two  million  pounds  soil. 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  180 


ment  gives  results  greater  than  the  same  nitrogen  content  in  ammonium 
sulfate  is  shown  in  Plate  II.  This  emphasizes  very  clearly  the  possibility 
of  using  guano  as  a fertilizer  constituent  just  for  the  sake  of  its  nitrogen, 
especially  when  its  effects  are  so  superior  to  those  of  the  common  fertilizer 
constituents  used  for  this  element. 

Field  Experiments  With  Bat  Guano.  Field  tests  comparing  ammonium 
sulfate  with  guano  under  various  application  rates  also  show  interesting 
results.  Five  small  field  plots  of  Putnam  silt  loam  were  used.  One  was 
left  untreated  to  serve  as  a check,  one  was  treated  with  ammonium  sul- 
fate at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  per  acre  and  the  remaining  three  plots  were 


Plate  II. — Pot  cultures  with  oats  showing  the  fertilizer  effect  of  bat  guano 
compared  with  that  of  ammonium  sulfate.  Duplicate  treatments  from  left  to  right 
are  ammonium  sulfate  100  pounds,  bat  guano  100  pounds  and  bat  guano  200  pounds 
nitrogen  per  two  million  pounds  of  soil. 


given  guano  at  the  rates  of  200,  400,  and  800  pounds  of  guano  per  acre. 
Oats  were  grown  as  the  crop,  carefully  harvested  and  threshed  to  test 
the  effects  of  the  above  treatments.  Table  VII  gives  the  crop  weights  pro- 
duced by  the  different  treatments,  and  Plate  III  shows  the  appearance  of 
the  plot  treated  with  ammonium  sulfate  as  compared  to  the  one  treated 
with  the  highest  application  of  bat  guano. 

Table  VII.  Weights  oe  Oats  Produced  by  Bat  Guano  in  Comparison  with 

Ammonium  Sueeate. 


Plot 

Fertilizer 
added  per  acre. 

Bushels 
grain  per 
acre. 

Increase 
over  check. 

Pounds  straw 
per  acre. 

Increase 
over  check. 

1 

Guano  400  lbs. 

31.17 

4.45 

1328 

163 

2 

Guano  200  lbs. 

30.81 

4.09 

1318 

156 

3 

Check 

26.72 

1162 

4 

Ammonium 
sulfate  100  lbs. 

27.04 

.32 

1180 

18 

5 

Guano  800  lbs. 

33.29 

6.57 

1444 

282 

Bat  Guano  and  Its  Fertilizing  Value 


13 


The  data  in  Table  VII  show  that  the  guano  produced  greater  in- 
creases in  all  three  applications  than  did  the  100  pounds  of  ammonium  sul- 
fate. The  minimum  increase  by  the  former  was  something  over  4 bushels 
of  oats  per  acre.  This  is  a fair  increase  from  200  pounds  applied,  showing 
such  application  superior  to  the  100  pounds  of  ammonium  sulfate.  These 
results  indicate  that  it  is  not  only  the  nitrogen  of  the  guano,  but  also 
the  other  fertilizer  elements,  phosphorus  and  potassium,  which  it  contains, 
that  produce  increased  yields.  For  had  nitrogen  been  the  limiting  element 
in  this  soil  the  treatment  with  ammonium  sulfate  should  have  done  equally 
as  well. 


Plate  III. — Field  results  on  oats  fertilized  with  bat  guano  at  the  rate  of  800 
pounds  per  acre  (on  the  right)  compared  with  ammonium  sulfate,  100  pounds  per 
acre  (on  the  left).  Plot  on  the  right  yielded  6.5  bushels  over  that  on  the  left  though 
not  indicated  clearly  in  the  picture. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  USING  BAT  GUANO 

According  to  its  composition  bat  guano,  as  found  in  most  deposits,  is 

an  unbalanced  plant  ration  with  high  nitrogen  content  and  will  serve  best 

when  this  excess  is  balanced  by  other  plant  foods.  The  fresher  guano 
should  be  reinforced  by  adding  phosphorus  although  that  taken  from  older 
deposits  is  fairly  rich  in  this  element.  Guano  may,  of  course,  be  used 
alone,  but  when  dry  it  is  so  light  in  weight  as  to  scatter  through  fertiliz- 
ing machinery  with  difficulty.  It  would  be  far  more  serviceable  as  a 
constituent  of  mixed  fertilizer.  The  addition  of  the  heavier  fertilizer  in- 
gredients would  overcome  the  mechanical  difficulty  of  spreading  as  well 
as  balance  the  plant  ration.  For1  the  farmer  who  owns  a deposit  of  guano 

or  can  get  such  cheaply,  it  may  be  advisable  to  use  the  guano  without 

modification,  but  for  most  efficient  results  it  should  be  reinforced  with 
those  plant  foods  that  balance  the  deficiencies. 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  180 


SUMMARY 

Bat  guano,  usually  found  in  caves,  has  a chemical  composition  which 
makes  it  favorable  for  use  as  fertilizer. 

Age  affects  the  fertilizing  value  of  guano  seriously.  While’  it  loses 
much  of  its  nitrogen  and  potash  by  leaching,  it  becomes  relatively  richer 
in  phosphorus. 

Guano  in  Missouri  caves  shows  variations  in  nitrogen  from  0.31  to 
10.44  per  cent,  in  phosphoric  acid  from  2.5  to  7.9  per  cent,  and  in  potash 
from  0.36  to  1.9  per  cent.  Its  content  in  moisture  is  usually  high,  often 
approaching  50  per  cent.  These  irregularities  have  made  guano  buying  a 
hazard  to  commercial  fertilizer  manufacturers. 

Experimental  ammonification  tests  showed  that  the  fresher  bat  guano 
produced  ammonia  in  amounts  equal  to  and  nitrates  in  amounts  even  great- 
er than  that  of  tankage.  It  did  not  equal  that. of  dried  blood  in  these  re- 
spects. 

In  pot  cultures  bat  guano  gave  results  superior  to  those  of  dried  blood, 
tankage,  and  ammonium  sulfate  and  in  field  tests  with  oats,  comparing  it 
with  ammonium  sulfate,  it  proved  itself  superior. 

Average  bat  guano  makes  a good  fertilizer  on  poor  soils  when  applied 
directly  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  pounds  of  dry  material  peT  acre.  As  a 
general  fertilizing  material  it  can  be  used  more  satisfactorily  as  a consti- 
tuent of  mixed  fertilizer,  especially  when  mixed  with  phosphorus  carriers. 


Bat  Guano  and  Its  Fertilizing  Value 


15 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Allen,  H.  Monograph  on  Bats  of  North  America.  Bui.  U-  S.  Nat.  Mus. 
43  (1893)  198  pp. 

2.  Fraps,  G.  S.,  Commercial  Fertilizers  in  1912-1913.  Texas  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  160  (1913). 

3.  Gile,  P.  L.  and  Carrero,  J.  O.  Bat  Guanos  of  Porto  Rico  and  Their  Fer- 
tilizing Value,  Porto  Rico  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  25  (1918)  65  pp. 

4.  Mcfarland,  A.  W.,  Blairstown,  Mo.  In  correspondence  with  author. 

5.  Newhouse,  E.  E.  Secretary  for  Arkansas  Fertilizer  Company  in  cor- 
respondence with  author. 

6.  Miller,  C.  F.  On  the  Composition  and  Value  of  Bat  Guano.  Separate 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bureau  of  Soils. 

7.  Trowbridge,  P.  F.  Inspection  of  Commercial  Fertilizers.  Missouri  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  145  (1917)  27.  Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  154  (1918)  30. 

8.  Zaitschek,  A.  The  Digestibility  of  Chitin  and  the  Nutritive  Value  of 
Insects.  Arch.  Physiol.  (Pfluger)  104  (1904)  612-623.  Exp.  Sta.  Rec.  16 
(1904-05)  585. 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
MARCH,  1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  181 


CORN  IN  MISSOURI 

I.  Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

the:  CURATORS  OF  the:  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

March,  1921 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 
C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.2 
R.  M.  Smith,  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedmann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  Sieveking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

G.  W.  York,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  F.  Ahmann,  A.  B. 

agricultural  engineering 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B.  S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  M.  Bernard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  Edinger,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VV.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Samuel  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

O.  C.  McBride,  B.  S.  in  A. 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  Gromer,  A.  M. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

Ben  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  SwartwouT,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agi 
Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 

R.  B.  Price,  M.  S..  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S..  Secretary 

S.  B.  Shirkey,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Director 
A.  A.  Jeffrey,  A.  B.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 

Miss  Bertha  C.  Hite,1  Seed  Testing 
Laboratory 


*In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
2On  leave  of  absence. 


CORN  IN  MISSOURI 


I.  Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 

L.  J.  Stadler,  C.  A.  Helm* 


The  average  acre-yield  of  corn  in  Missouri  during  the  10-year  period  1911- 
1920  was  27  bushels.  Many  farmers  have  made  yields  two  or  three  times  as 
high  in  the  same  period.  While  it  is  true  that  many  extremely  high  yields 
of  corn  are  produced  at  less  profit  than  moderately  high  yields,  it  is  certain 
that  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  the  State  could  be  increased  at  least  25  per- 
cent by  practices  which  would  not  increase  the  cost  of  production.  The  yield 
of  corn  or  of  any  other  crop  may  be  increased  through  the  use  of  better  seed 
and  better  methods  of  culture.  In  this  bulletin  the  factors  which  make  for 
better  seed  are  discussed,  including  the  choice  of  a variety,  the  improvement  of 
the  variety  chosen  and  the  production  of  pure,  live,  healthy  seed.  Methods  of 
culture  will  be  discussed  in  another  bulletin  soon  to  be  published. 

VARIETIES  OF  CORN 

Tests  of  varieties  of  corn  have  been  conducted  by  the  Missouri  Experiment 
Station  in  all  sections  of  the  State  since  1905.  Over  50  varieties  were  tested 
in  a preliminary  way  at  Columbia  and  the  best  of  these  were  further  tested 
for  many  years  on  eight  outlying  experiment  fields  and  in  467  cooperative 
tests  on  farms  located  in  the  important  agricultural  regions  of  the  State.  The 
results  of  the  first  five  years  were  reported  in  Bulletin  87  of  this  Station  and 
the  results  of  the  first  10  years  in  Bulletin  143.  The  present  bulletin  reports 
the  results  of  16  years  including  the  season  of  1920.  The  results  through  this 
period  were  consistent  and  the  relative  value  of  the  varieties  now  available  to 
Missouri  farmers  may  therefore  be  considered  fairly  well  established,  although 
it  is  possible  that  future  tests  of  new  varieties  may  discover  kinds  more  valu- 
able than  any  now  being  grown. 

The  object  of  these  tests  was  to  find  the  most  suitable  variety  for  each 
important  agricultural  section  of  the  State.  The  conclusions  are,  therefore, 

based  chiefly  on  the  results  of  tests  on  outlying  fields. 

The  following  varieties  were  tested  at  Columbia  during  the  years  1905- 
1915  inclusive: 

Boone  County  White  Cartner 

Boone  County  Special  Cob  Pipe 

Bloody  Butcher  Commercial 


*The  variety  tests  reported  in  this  bulletin  were  planned  and  begun  by  M.  F.  Miller, 
and  have  been  at  various  times  under  the  direct  charge  of  Professor  Miller,  H.  D.  Hughes, 
C.  B.  Hutchison,  T.  R.  Douglass,  J.  B.  Smith  and  C.  A.  Helm.  Earlier  results  are  report- 
ed in  Bulletin  87,  by  M.  F.  Miller  and  H D Hughes,  and  in  Bulletin  143,  by  C B. 
Hutchison,  A.  R.  Evans,  J.  C.  Hackleman  and  E.  M.  McDonald,  with  a description  of  the 
soil  areas  concerned  by  H.  H.  Krusekopf.  These  bulletins  have  been  drawn  on  freely  in 
the  preparation  of  this  report.  Dr.  W.  C.  Etheridge,  chairman  of  the  Department  of  Eield 
Crops,  has  had  general  supervision  of  the  work  since  1916,  and  has  aided  greatly  by  ad- 
vice and  criticism  in  the  preparation  of  the  present  bulletin. 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


Champion  White  Pearl 

Iowa  Silvermine 

Cocke  Prolific 

Indiana  Ear  No.  4 

Clay  County  White 

Johnson  County  White 

Calico 

Kansas  Sunflower 

Clarage 

Learning 

Diamond  Joe 

Legal  Tender 

Eclipse 

Lenocher  Homestead 

Funk  Silver  King 

McAuley  White  Dent 

Funk  Yellow  Dent 

McMacken  Gourdseed 

Funk  90  Day 

Missouri  No.  7 

Farmers’  Interest 

Marlboro  Prolific 

Farmers’  Reliance 

Pride  of  the  North 

Golden  Beauty 

Pride  of  Nishna 

Gold  Standard  Learning 

Queen  of  Nishna 

Golden  Eagle 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

Graves  Yellow  Dent 

Ratekin  Yellow  Dent 

Golden  Yellow  Dent 

Roseland 

Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

St.  Charles  White 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent 

St.  Charles  Special  No.  2 

Hoffmeister  White 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

Howard  County  Yellow 

Smoot  90  Day 

Hickory  King 

Tucker  Special 

Illinois  Silvermine 

White  Superior 

Only  14  of  these  varieties  were  considered  worthy  of  further  trial  on  out- 
lying experiment  fields  and  on  farms  of  cooperators.  The  years  in  which 
these  were  tested  in  cooperation  with  farmers  are  indicated  in  Table  1. 

Continued  tests  eventually  eliminated  all  but  six  varieties : Boone  County 
White,  Commercial  White,  St.  Charles  White,  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  Learning, 
and  St.  Charles  Yellow  and  these  six  were  very  thoroughly  tested  on  outlying 
experiment  fields  and  in  cooperative  tests  since  1910  to  find  their  relative  value 
in  each  section.  These  six  varieties  are  alluded  to  in  the  following  pages  as 
the  standard  Missouri  varieties. 


Table  1. — Varieties  in  Co-operative  Tests,  1905-1914. 


VARIETIES 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910-14 

(Incl.) 

Boone  County  White 

1 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Cartner. . . 

* 

* 

* 

Champion  White  Pearl . . 

* 

Commercial  White 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Farmer’s  Interest 

* 

* 

Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

* 

* 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent. 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Johnson  County  White. . . 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Learning 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Legal  Tender 

* 

* 

* 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Silvermine. . 

* 

* 

* 

' * 

* 

St.1 r Charles  White 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


COMPARATIVE  SHRINKAGE  OF  CORN  VARIETIES 

All  yields  reported  in  the  following  pages  are  in  terms  of  bushels  of  ear 
corn  per  acre  at  husking  time.  Direct  comparison  of  these  yields  gives  a dis- 
tinct advantage  to  varieties  which  at  husking  contained  an  abnormally  high 
percentage  of  moisture  or  a low  percentage  of  grain.  Varieties  with  large 
cobs  and  shallow  grain  may  have  considerably  less  grain  per  bushel  of  ear 
corn  than  varieties  with  a deeper  grain,  such  as  Reid  Yellow  Dent.  Heavy 
cobbed  and  late  maturing  varieties  are  also  likely  to  contain  a high  percentage 
of  moisture.  Thus  equal  yields  of  ear  corn  at  husking  may  represent  decidedly 
unequal  yields  of  dry  shelled  corn.  The  unequal  shrinkage  of  the  different 
varieties  must  be  considered  in  comparing  yields.  Sometimes  as  much  as  25 
percent  difference  betwen  two  varieties  in  yield  of  ear  corn  at  husking  is  com- 
pletely overbalanced  by  difference  in  shrinkage.  The  yield  of  dry  shelled  corn 
should  be  the  basis  of  judgment.  Moreover,  of  two  varieties  equal  in  yield 
of  dry  shelled  corn,  the  one  showing  the  lower  percentage  of  shrinkage,  and 
consequently  the  lower  yield  of  ear  corn  at  husking,  is  to  be  preferred.  The 
shrinkage  is  largely  caused  by  high  moisture  content,  and  the  higher  the  mois- 
ture content  the  poorer  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  grain.  High  moisture  con- 
tent is  usually  caused  by  late  maturity;  and  the  use  of  late  varities  greatly  in- 
creases the  danger  of  soft  corn  from  early  freezes  and  the  difficulty  of  secur- 
ing good  seed  corn  even  in  the  average  season.  Furthermore,  the  expense  of 
handling  up  to  25  percent  more  weight  in  the  ear  corn  at  husking  to  secure 
the  same  actual  yield  of  dry  shelled  corn  is  an  item  of  some  importance. 

As  determinations  of  shelling  percentage  and  of  moisture  content  were  not 
made  in  the  early  years  of  the  tests  reported  herein,  all  yields  are  expressed  in 
bushels  of  ear  corn  for  direct  comparison.  A number  of  these  determinations 
were  made,  however,  and  are  reported. 

Five  years’  data  on  the  shrinkage  of  corn  varieties  at  Columbia  are  avail- 
able. Shrinkage  was  determined  by  storing  the  corn  in  crates  over  winter  in  a 
dry  and  well  ventilated  seed  house,  and  shelling  it  in  late  winter  or  early 
spring.  The  weight  of  air-dry  shelled  corn  obtained  from  one  hundred  pounds 
of  ear  corn  at  husking  time  for  the  principal  varieties  grown  at  Columbia  dur- 
ing the  five  seasons  is  shown  in  Table  2. 

Although  the  seasonal  variation  in  shrinkage  is  large,  it  can  be  seen  that 
certain  varieties  always  show  relatively  low  shrinkage,  while  others  show  rela- 
tively high  shrinkage.  In  the  averages  of  the  five  seasons  reported  above,  the 
shrinkage  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent  is  less  than  30  percent,  while  that  of  Cob  Pipe, 
under  the  same  conditions,  is  more  than  45  percent.  In  other  words,  1.14 
bushels  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent  in  the  ear  at  husking  time  was  actually  equal  in 
dry  shelled  corn  to  1.46  bushels  of  Cob  Pipe  under  the  same  conditions;  or  a 
64-bushel  yield  of  Cob  Pipe  would  be  required  to  equal  50-bushel  yield  of 
Reid  Yellow  Dent  as  measured  in  ear  corn  at  husking.  A difference  in  yield 
of  28  percent  is  fully  counteracted  by  the  difference  in  shrinkage  of  these 
two  varieties.  This  difference  is  extreme  but  other  varieties  also  show  note- 
worthy difference  in  rate  of  shrinkage.  The  figures  given  in  the  last  column 
of  Table  2 for  each  variety  indicate  equivalent  yields  of  ear  corn.  Thus  1.26 
bushels  of  Commercial  White  are  equivalent  to  1.18  bushels  of  Learning,  or  to 
1.34  bushels  of  Hildreth  Yellow  Dent. 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


Table  2. — Shrinkage  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Columbia. 


(In  Pounds  of  Air  Dried  Shelled  Corn  per  100  Pounds  of  Ear  Corn  at  Husking.) 


VARIETY 

1910 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

Average 

Bu.  Ear  Ccm 
Equivalent 
to  1 Bu. 
Shelled  Com 

St.  Charles  White 

62 

.68 

68 

.62 

62 

.22 

64 

.23 

j 76 

.81 

1 66 

.91 

1 

.20 

Boone  County  White 

61 

.81 

67 

.40 

1 64 

.00 

52 

.68 

78 

.48 

j 64 

.87 

1 

.23 

Learning 

59 

.07 

70 

.86 

62 

.90 

64 

.17 

j 83 

.02 

68 

.00 

1 

.18 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

64 

. 54 

72 

.02 

j 65 

.43 

67 

.61 

82. 

.52 

70 

.42 

1 

.14 

Cartner 

62 

27 

69 

.34 

66 

31 

65 

.48 

1 80 

.62 

68 

.80 

1 

.16 

Iowa  Silvermine 

62 

. 15 

l 69 

.60 

62 

.60 

i 63 

.67 

82, 

. 59 

68 

.12 

1 

.17 

Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

i ^ 

.74 

61 

.14  | 

! 64 

. 77 

43 

.49 

70. 

96 

59 

.52 

1 

.34 

Johnson  County  White 

61 

.31 

1 68 

.45  I 

64 

.38  ! 

54 

.98 

81. 

20  j 

66 

.06 

1 

.27 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

62 

.76 

68 

.83  ! 

60 

.00  1 

59 

.16 

80. 

59 

66 

.27 

1 

.28 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent 

65 

.11 

72. 

. 54  | 

66 

•14 

64 

.80 

81. 

.79 

70 

.07 

1 

.14 

Commercial  White 

55 

.93 

66 

38  J 

63. 

33 

56 

.04 

74. 

.37 

63 

■21 

1 

26 

Cob  Pipe 

54 

61 

48. 

58  1 

63 

41  i 

41 

10 

66. 

44 

54 

.83  I 

1 

.46 

Illinois  Silvermine 

64. 

.47 

69. 

97 

63. 

. 56 

68 

.85 

83. 

22 

70 

01 

1 

14 

Pride-of-the-North 

65 . 

98  ; 

79. 

19 

60. 

00 

60 

17 

87. 

41 

71. 

.55  i 

1 

12 

Clay  County  White 

61. 

. 54  1 

69. 

63 

67. 

82 

63. 

.52 

79. 

73 

68 

45  | 

1 

17 

Calico • | 

59. 

13 

71. 

68  \ 

65 . 

00 

54. 

62  j 

82. 

28  ; 

66 

34 

1 

20 

Bloody  Butcher 

56. 

14 

71. 

07 

61. 

42 

50 . 

08  | 

84. 

05 

64. 

.55 

1. 

24 

Both  factors  concerned  in  shrinkage,  as  measured  in  the  foregoing — the 
shelling  percentage  and  the  moisture  content — are  more  or  less  affected  by 
seasonal  conditions.  Determinations  of  both  have  therefore  been  made  for  five 
principal  varieties  grown  in  variety  tests  in  different  sections  of  the  State  and 
in  different  seasons.  These  are  summarized  in  Table  3. 

The  foregoing  data  show  that  in  northern  and  central  Missouri  the  shrink- 
age varies  considerably,  while  in  southern  Missouri  the  shrinkage  is  slight  in 
degree  and  varies  but  little  with  the  variety.  In  northern  and  central  Missouri 
the  medium  early  maturing  varieties,  Reid  Yellow  Dent  and  Learning,  show  the 
smallest  shrinkage.  A 12  percent  advantage  in  wTeight  of  ear  corn  at  htisking 
time  for  Commercial  White  over  Reid  Yellow  Dent  or  Learning  is  required 
to  offset  the  lower  shrinkage  of  the  latter  named  varieties.  In  other  words, 
Commercial  White  must  yield  12  percent  more  ear  corn  as  measured  at  husk- 
ing to  equal  the  yield  of  dry  shelled  corn  of  either  Reid  Yellow'  Dent  or  Learn- 
ing in  northern  or  central  Missouri.  It  must  yield  about  8 percent  more  ear 
corn  than  Boone  County  White  or  St.  Charles  White.  Unless  it  excels  these 
varieties  by  considerably  larger  mafgins  than  those  mentioned,  it  is  to  be 
avoided  in  northern  and  central  Missouri  because  of  its  higher  moisture  con- 
tent and  consequently  poorer  keeping  quality.  However,  in  southern  Missouri, 
where  the  growing  season  is  long  enough  to  mature  Commercial  White,  this 
variety  shows  but  little  more  shrinkage  than  the  others  and  practically  the 
same  moisture  content  at  husking. 

VARIETY  TESTS  AT  COLUMBIA 

In  the  11  years,  1905-1915  inclusive,  52  varieties  of  corn  were  tested 
at  Columbia.  The  soil  on  which  the  tests  were  conducted  is  a gently  rolling 
Putnam  silt  loam,  fairly  representative  of  the  upland  soils  of  northeastern 


Table  3. — Shrinkage  Determinations  in  Northern,  Central,  and  Southern  Missouri. 

Northern  Missouri. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


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Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


and  central  Missouri.  The  plots  have  received  no  commercial  fertilizer, 
but  crops  have  been  rotated  regularly  and  the  soil  is  fairly  productive.  The 
yields  of  all  varieties  which  were  tested  four  years  or  more  and  were  not 
eliminated  because  of  poor  yields  before  1915  are  given  in  Table  4. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  yields  in  this  table  that  in  a given  season  there 
is  a great  difference  between  the  yields  of  different  varieties  grown  under  the 
same  conditions.  Thus  in  1907  the  yield  of  Boone  County  White  was  more 
than  100  percent  greater  than  that  of  Silvermine.  The  relative  value  of 
two  varieties,  however,  may  be  very  different  in  different  seasons.  For  ex- 
ample, in  1907  Boone  County  White  outyielded  Reid  Yellow  Dent  by  17 
bushels,  while  in  1911  Reid  Yellow  Dent  outyielded  Boone  County  White 
by  12  bushels.  Obviously,  the  best  variety  for  a locality  can  be  fairly  de- 
termined only  by  a comparison  of  the  average  yields  of  varieties  for  a 
period  of  several  seasons.  Futhermore,  in  comparing  two  varieties,  the 
average  yields  compared  must  represent  the  same  seasons.  It  would  not 
be  accurate  to  compare  the  average  yield  of  Boone  County  White  for  1905-1915 
with  the  average  yield  of  Clay  County  White  for  1909-1915.  Clay  County 
White  can  be  accurately  compared  with  Boone  County  White  only  by  comparing 
the  average  yields  of  the  two  varieties  for  the  jears  in  which  both 
were  included  in  the  test.  The  average  yields  have  been  computed 
for  the  eleven-year  period  for  the  six  varieties  which  were  in  the  test  for 
the  full  period,  and  also  for  shorter  periods  for  varieties  which  were 
brought  into  the  test  after  the  first  year.  The  yields  of  the  six  original 
varieties  have  been  computed  also  for  these  shorter  periods  for  direct  com- 
parison with  those  of  varieties  tested  less  than  11  3^ears.  In  Table  5 all 
of  the  average  yields  in  the  same  column  represent  the  same  period  of 
years  and  may  be  directly  compared. 

Of  the  six  varieties  which  were  tested  for  11  years  at  Columbia,  St. 
Charles  White,  Boone  County  White,  and  Reid  Yellow  Dent  are  the  lead- 
ers, ranking  in  the  order  named.  Iowa  Silvermine  is  very  inferior  to  the 
other  varieties  tested. 

In  the  lOwear  averages  neither  of  the  two  varieties  added  to  the  test, 
Johnson  County  White  and  Hogue  Yellow  Dent,  equal  the  yield  of  St.  Charles 
White.  The  yield  of  Johnson  County  White  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Boone 
County  White,  which  it  closely  resembles.  These  two  varieties  made  almost 
identical  yields  in  nearly  every  season.  Hogue  Yellow  Dent,  a variety  ob- 
tained from  Nebraska,  was  inferior  to  the  three  standard  Missouri  varieties, 
Reid  Yellow  Dent,  Boone  County  White  and  St.  Charles  White. 

The  two  varieties  added  in  1907,  Hildreth  Yellow  Dent  and  Commer- 
cial White,  show  well  in  the  nine-year  averages,  the  former  equaling  the 
yield  of  St.  Charles  White  and  the  latter  surpassing  it  by  almost  10  per- 
cent. Both  of  these  varieties,  however,  have  a higher  shrinkage  than  St. 
Charles  White,  as  shown  in  Table  2.  According  to  this  five-year  average 
of  shrinkage  determinations,  1.34  bushels  of  Hildreth  Yellow  Dent  or  1.26 
bushels  of  Commercial  White  are  equivalent  to  1.20  bushels  of  St.  Charles 
White;  that  is,  Hildreth  Yellow  Dent  must  outyield  St.  Charles  White  by 
about  12  percent  and  Commercial  White  must  surpass  it  by  about  5 per- 
cent in  yield  of  ear  corn  at  husking  to  equal  it  in  yield  of  dry  shelled  corn. 
In  yield  of  dry  shelled  corn  Hildreth  Yellow  Dent  has  not  equalled  any  of 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


11 


the  three  standard  varieties  while  Commercial  White  has  outyielded  them 
5 percent  or  more. 

None  of  the  varieties  added  to  the  test  after  1907  has  outyielded  Com- 
mercial White.  Cob  Pipe,  tested  for  seven  years,  shows  an  average  yield 
3 bushels  less  than  that  of  Commercial  White  and  somewhat  greater  than 
those  of  the  other  standard  Missouri  varieties.  But  its  extremely  high 
shrinkage  reduces  its  yield  of  shelled  corn  to  a point  considerably  below 
theirs.  St.  Charles  Yellow,  which  was  added  to  the  test  in  1906  but  omit- 
ted in  1909,  made  an  average  acre  yield  of  51.4  bushels  of  ear  corn  during 
the  nine  years  it  has  been  tested,  as  compared  with  a yield  of  52.3  bushels 
for  St.  Charles  White  in  the  same  period.  Considering  relative  shrinkage, 


Table  5. — Average  Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Columbia. 


(In  Bushels  per  Acre) 


VARIETY 

AVERAGE  YIELD 

11  Yrs. 
1905-15 

10  Yrs. 
1906-15 

9 Yrs. 
1907-15 

8 Yrs. 
1908-15 

7 Yrs. 
1909-15 

6 Yrs. 
1910-15 

4 Yrs. 
1912-15 

St.  Charles  White 

53.1 

53.1 

51.9 

48.4 

47.6 

45.4 

41.3 

Boone  County  White 

51.5 

51.3 

50.0 

46.1 

46.6 

45.3 

42.4 

Learning 

48.7 

48.9 

46.8 

44.6 

45.6 

44.2 

41.6 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

49.5 

50.3 

48.4 

46.5 

47.9 

47.2 

40.2 

Cartner 

48.2 

48.1 

48.5 

46.0 

47.9 

47.2 

44.1 

Iowa  Silvermine 

42.5 

41.3 

39.4 

39.2 

39.8 

38.6 

36.8 

Johnson  County  White 

50.5 

48.7 

45.4 

45.8 

43.9 

41.6 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent 

46.1 

45.5 

46.1 

46.8 

45.7 

43.2 

Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

51.9 

46.8 

48.5 

47.9 

38.5 

Commercial  White 

56.6 

52.8 

53.7 

53.1 

49.5 

Illinois  Silvermine 

41.7 

42.5 

39.1 

35.4 

Cob  Pipe 

50.7 

48.2 

41.0 

Clay  County  White 

43.1 

42.2 

38.1 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

45.3 

43.0 

Calico 

42.3 

38.4 

Bloody  Butcher 

44.0 

36.6 

Legal  Tender 

38.2 

Hoffmeister  White 

49.1 

Tucker  Special 

34.1 

its  yield  has  been  slightly  lower  than  those  of  St.  Charles  White,  Boone 
County  White  and  Reid  Yellow  Dent.  Legal  Tender,  also  added  to  the 
test  in  1906  but  omitted  in  1909,  1910,  and  1911,  has  averaged  during  the 
seven  years  it  was  tested,  46.3  bushels,  while  St.  Charles  White  has  aver- 
aged 48.0  bushels  in  the  same  period.  Pride  of  the  North,  tested  from 
1909  to  1915,  with  the  exception  of  1912,  has  yielded  an  average  of  26.7 
bushels,  in  comparison  with  43.3  bushels  for  Commercial  White  in  the  same 
period. 

The  leading  varieties  of  corn  at  Columbia  were  Commercial  White 
and  St.  Charles  White.  Boone  County  White  and  Reid  Yellow  Dent  also 
yielded  well.  Johnson  County  White  gave  practically  the  same  results  as 
Boone  County  White.  Extremely  early  maturing  varieties  such  as  Silver- 
mine  and  Pride  of  the  North  were  decidedly  inferior  in  yield  to  the  medium 
late  maturing  varieties. 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


VARIETY  TESTS  ON  OUTLYING  FIELDS 

Variety  tests  have  been  conducted  on  outlying  fields  distributed  over 
the  State  throughout  the  16-year  period  treated  in  this  report.  For  10  years, 
1905-1914  inclusive,  they  were  conducted  in  cooperation  with  farmers  and 
were  located  roughly  in  proportion  to  the  production  of  corn  in  the  var- 
ious sections  of  the  State.  The  plan  in  this  cooperative  work  was  to  test, 
on  all  of  the  important  soil  types  of  the  State,  those  varieties  most  prom- 
ising for  Missouri  conditions.  Each  cooperator  was  supplied  with  seed  of  six 
to  ten  varieties,  in  quantities  sufficient  for  planting  at  least  one-fourth  of  an 
acre  of  each.  These  were  planted  side  by  side  on  the  average  corn  land 
of  the  community,  care  being  taken  to  select  a piece  of  land  as  uniform  in 
fertility  as  possible.  Where  possible  the  varieties  were  planted  in  long 
rows  rather  than  in  blocks,  to  gain  more  uniform  conditions  of  soil.  In 
order  to  make  the  test  as  simple  as  possible  for  the  cooperators,  usually 
but  one  plot  of  each  variety  was  planted,  although  more  accurate  results 
undoubtedly  would  have  been  secured  if  each  variety  could  have  been  re- 
peated and  the  average  of  two  or  more  plots  taken  as  an  estimate  of  its 
value.  In  each  case  the  varieties  were  given  the  same  treatment  so  that 

all  could  have  equal  chances.  As 
the  season  advanced  each  cooperator 
made  careful  observations  and  notes  on 
the  growth  and  development  of  the 
varieties  and  at  maturity  harvested  and 
weighed  each  of  them  separately.  These 
observations  and  weights  were  for- 
warded to  the  Experiment  Station  on 
blanks  furnished  for  the  purpose,  and 
the  yield  of  each  variety  in  each  case 
was  calculated  on  the  basis  of  70  pounds 
to  the  bushel.  The  approximate  loca- 
tion of  the  fields  on  which  the  co- 

„ A operative  experiments  were  conducted 

Fig.  1.  Approximate  location  of  cooperative  . . 

tests  of  corn  varieties.  IS  shown  in  Figure  1. 

In  1910,  in  order  to  simplify  the  cooperative  work  and  obtain  more 
detailed  and  reliable  information  on  the  better  yielding  varieties,  all  except 
Boone  County  White,  Commercial  White,  St.  Charles  White,  Reid  Yellow 
Dent,  Learning,  and  St.  Charles  Yellow  were  dropped  from  the  test.  The 
first  five  years’  results  had  indicated  that  these  six  varieties  were  the 
leaders  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

The  results  of  the  cooperative  tests  were  reported  in  detail  in  Bulletin 
143  of  this  Station.  In  the  present  bulletin  they  are  reported  only  in  sum- 
marized form. 

Corn  varieties  have  also  been  tested  on  eight  outlying  experiment 
fields  of  the  Experiment  Station.  The  location  of  these  fields  is  shown  in 
Figure  2.  The  plots  used  on  these  fields  were  usually  about  one-tenth 
acre  in  size  and  were  usually  repeated  from  two  to  five  times. 

For  the  purpose  of  determining  the  adaptation  of  the  varieties  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  State,  the  State  has  been  divided  into  seven  sections, 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


13 


largely  on  the  basis  of  soil  fertility  and  physiographic  features.  These 
sections  are  (1)  the  black  prairies  of  northwestern  Missouri  (2)  the  rolling 
prairies  of  north-central  Missouri  (3)  the  level  prairies  of  northeastern  Mis- 
souri (4)  the  gray  prairies  of  southwestern  Missouri  (5)  the  Ozark  border 
(6)  the  Ozark  center,  and  (7)  the  lowlands  of  southeastern  Missouri.  The 


Fig.  2.  Agricultural  regions  of  Missouri,  and  outlying  experiment  fields  on  which  corn 
variety  tests  were  conducted. 


location  of  these  seven  regions  is  shown  in  Figure  2.  The  number  of  co- 
operative tests  located  in  each  of  these  regions  and  in  the  bottom  lands 
of  northern  and  southern  Missouri  is  shown  below. 


Black  prairies  (upland)  110 

Rolling  prairies  (upland)  28 

Level  prairies  (upland)  85 

Gray  prairies  (upland)  39 

Ozark  border  (upland)  66 

Ozark  center  (upland)  29 

Southeast  lowlands  9 

Northern  Missouri  bottom  lands  29 

Southern  Missouri  bottom  lands  48 

Total  number  of  cooperative  tests  467 


In  the  following  pages  all  tests  conducted  by  the  Station  elsewhere 
than  on  the  Experiment  Station  farm  at  Columbia  are  summarized  sep- 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


arately  for  each  section.  Variety  tests  on  the  bottom  lands  of  northern 
and  southern  Missouri  are  also  summarized  separately. 

THE  BLACK  PRAIRIES  OF  NORTHWESTERN  MISSOURI 

In  general,  the  soils  of  the  black  prairie  region  represent  the  most 
valuable  farming  land  of  the  State.  They  are  characterized  by  their  dark 
color,  mellow  texture,  and  high  content  of  organic  matter.  The  surface 
soil  is  mostly  a mellow,  black  to  dark  brown  silt  loam,  and  the  subsoil 
a drab  silty  clay  loam,  porous  and  retentive  of  moisture.  Physically,  the 
black  prairie  soils  are  almost  ideal.  The  topography  of  the  region  is 
nearly  level  to  gently  rolling,  except  along  the  Missouri  River  where  the 
surface  is  moderately  hilly.  In  this  section,  110  cooperative  tests  were 
made.  These  are  summarized  in  Table  6. 

Learning,  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  Boone  County  White  and  St.  Charles 
White,  the  only  varieties  which  were  tested  throughout  the  10-year  period, 
show  practically  no  difference  in  average  yield  of  ear  corn.  The  average 
yields  of  Commercial  White  and  St.  Charles  Yellow  are  practically  equal 
to  those  of  the  first  named  varieties  for  the  eight  years  in  which  all  were 
tested.  When  relative  shrinkage  is  considered,  however.  Learning  and 
Reid  Yellow  Dent  must  be  considered  distinctly  superior  to  the  others. 
Boone  County  White  was  the  best  variety  of  white  corn.  In  these  co- 
operative tests  Silvermine  again  proved  decidedly  inferior.  Johnson 
County  White,  tested  in  three  seasons,  made  about  the  same  yield  as 
Boone  County  White.  Hogue  Yellow  Dent  yielded  well  but  did  not  equal 
Learning  and  Reid  Yellow  Dent.  Two  of  the  outlying  experiment  fields 
are  located  in  the  black  prairies  region,  one  at  Maryville,  Nodaway  Coun- 
ty, in  the  extreme  northern  part,  and  the  other  at  Warrensburg,  Johnson 
County,  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  region.  There  is  a consider- 
able difference  in  latitude  between  these  two  stations  and  the  growing 
season  at  Warrensburg  is,  on  the  average,  several  days  longer  than  the 
growing  season  at  Maryville. 

The  yields  of  varieties  at  Maryville  for  seven  seasons  are  summarized 
in  Table  7. 

Of  the  varieties  tested  for  the  full  eight  years  at  Maryville,  Learning 
was  the  leader  by  a considerable  margin,  followed  in  order  by  Reid  Yellow 
Dent,  St.  Charles  White,  and  Boone  County  White.  Hogue  Yellow  Dent, 
tested  for  only  five  years,  slightly  excelled  the  yield  of  Learning  during  that 
period,  and  is  probably  of  about  equal  value.  No  other  variety  tested  equaled 
the  yield  of  Learning  or  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent.  The  yields  of  the  late,  heavy- 
cobbed  varieties,  Commercial  White  and  Hildreth  Yellow  Dent,  were  dis- 
tinctly inferior,  while  those  of  early  maturing  varieties,  Silvermine,  Funk 
Ninety  Day,  and  Smoot  Ninety  Day  were  fair  but  not  equal  to  the  yield 
of  Learning. 

The  yields  of  varieties  at  Warrensburg  for  a six-year  period  are  shown 
in  Table  8. 

Commercial  White  was  the  outstanding  leader  at  Warrensburg.  Of 
the  other  important  varieties,  St.  Charles  White  was  next  highest  in  yield 
and  Learning  third.  Reid  Yellow  Dent  and  Boone  County  White  made 


Table  6. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  in  Co-operative  Tests. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


15 


Table  7. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Maryville,  Nodaway  County. 

Black  Prairie  Soils  of  Northwestern  Missouri 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


17 


a poor  showing  in  the  test  at  this  point.  St.  Charles  Yellow,  during  the 
four  years  it  was  tested,  almost  equaled  the  yield  of  St.  Charles  White. 

On  the  black  prairie  soils  of  northwestern  Missouri  the  leading  varie- 
ties were  Learning  and  Reid  Yellow  Dent.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  black 
prairie  region,  however,  Commercial  White  and  St.  Charles  White  gave 
the  highest  yields. 


Table  8. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Warrensburg,  Johnson  County. 

Black  Prairie  Soils  of  Northwestern  Missouri. 


VARIETY 

1914 

1915 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

6 Yrs. 
14-15 
17-20 

5 Yrs. 
14-15 
17-18 

6 20 

5 Yrs. 
14-15 
17-19 

3 Yrs. 
14-15 
& 20 

Boone  County  White 

29.6 

71.6 

45.1 

3.4 

18.4 

34.2 

33.7 

36.8 

33.6 

45.1 

Commercial  White 

69.6 

86.9 

69.3 

2.8 

27.6 

63.6 

53.3 

58.4 

51.2 

73.4 

St.  Charles  White 

59.1 

65.0 

58.3 

4.9 

24.9 

38.5 

41.8 

45.2 

42.4 

54.2 

Learning 

51.3 

69.4 

47.3 

4.4 

19.7 

25.0 

36.2 

39.5 

38.4 

48.6 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

29.3 

56.6 

42.9 

3.9 

21.7 

32.9 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

60.0 

64.9 

46.2 

2.9 

46.1 

44,0 

57.0 

Johnson  County  White 

50.8 

54.6 

Silvermine 

52.1 

50.1 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent 

46.0 

£4 . 9 

Cartner . . . 

52.9 

66.4 

Calico . . . 

31.9 

44.7 

49.1 

42.1 

Funk  Ninety  Day. . . 

47.7 

48  1 

Bloody  Butcher  . 

33.6 

48.4 

29.0 

42.8 

41.6 

Golden  Yellow  Dent 

42.8 

60.6 

Smoot  Ninety  Day 

52.7 

THE  ROLLING  PRAIRIES  OF  NORTH  CENTRAL  MISSOURI 

The  soils  of  the  rolling  prairie  region  to  a depth  of  six  to  ten  inches 
are  black,  dark  gray,  or  grayish  brown  silt  loams  or  loams. 

The  lighter  colored  soils  are  found  on  the  lower  areas  or  in  places 
exposed  to  erosion,  while  the  darker  soils  occur  on  the  more  nearly  level 
areas  and  on  the  lower  slopes  where  much  organic  matter  has  accumulated. 
The  subsoils  are  yellowish-brown  heavy  loams  or  clay  loams,  which  con- 
tain an  appreciable  amount  of  coarse  sand,  fine  gravel,  and  lime  concre- 
tions, and  are  usually  somewhat  gritty.  They  grade  downward  into  com- 
pact gritty  clay,  usually  yellow  or  gray  or  showing  mottlings  of  these 
colors.  The  presence  of  sand  and  gravel  in  both  soils  and  subsoils  gives 
a distinctly  loamy  texture,  and  permits  the  downward  percolation  of  water 
through  the  rather  heavy  soil  material.  The  region  is  characterized  by 
a rolling  topography,  more  pronounced  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western 
portion.  The  production  of  corn  in  this  region  is  less  than  in  the  other 
parts  of  northern  Missouri. 

In  this  region  28  cooperative  tests  were  conducted,  extending  through 
a period  of  eight  years.  They  are  summarized  in  Table  9. 

No  difference  in  value  between  the  six  leading  varieties  is  shown  in 
this  table.  The  yield  of  Silvermine  is  again  distinctly  inferior. 


18 


Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


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Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


19 


A test  has  been  conducted  during  the  past  three  years  in  cooperation 
with  the  First  District  Normal  School  at  Kirksville,  in  this  region.  The 
yields  of  varieties  tested  at  this  point  are  shown  in  Table  10. 

These  results  represent  too  short  a series  of  seasons  to  form  the  basis 
for  definite  conclusions.  They  indicate,  however,  that  the  medium  early 
varieties,  Learning  in  particular,  are  fully  as  productive  in  this  region  as 
the  later  maturing  varieties. 

It  would  appear  that  in  the  rolling  prairie  region  of  north  central 
Missouri  there  is  but  little  difference  in  the  productivity  of  the  six  stand- 
ard Missouri  varieties — Boone  County  White,  St.  Charles  White,  Com- 
mercial White,  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  Learning,  and  St.  Charles  Yellow — but 
that  the  very  early  maturing  varieties,  as  typified  by  Silvermine,  are  of  less 
value.  Because  of  their  earlier  maturity  and  lower  shrinkage,  Reid  Yellow 


Table  10. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Kirksville,  Adair  County. 
Rolling  Prairie  Soils  of  North  Central  Missouri. 


VARIETY 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Average  Yield 
3 Years,  18,  19,  20 

Boone  County  White 

15.8 

72.3 

20.2 

36.1 

Commercial  White 

12.7 

65.0 

21.2 

33.0 

St.  Charles  White 

14.8 

73.9 

19.7 

36.1 

Learning 

21.5 

72.7 

19.1 

37.8 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

16.6 

19.6 

St.  Charles  Yellow. . . 

18.7 

17.5 

Early  White 

51.9 

Bloody  Butcher 

21.3 

Dent  and  Learning  are  to  be  preferred  to  the  other  standard  varieties  in  this 
part  of  the  State.  A strip  of  the  rolling  prairie  region  extends  through 
Randolph,  Howard,  and  Boone  Counties.  In  this  portion  of  the  region  the 
results  obtained  in  the  test  at  Columbia,  reported  in  Table  3,  will  probably 
apply,  and  the  most  productive  varieties  will  probably  be  Commercial  White, 
Boone  County  White,  and  St.  Charles  White. 

THE  LEVEL  PRAIRIES  OF  NORTHEASTERN  MISSOURI 

The  typical  soil  of  this  region  is  a dark  gray  or  gray  friable  silt  loam 
to  a depth  of  eight  to  twelve  inches,  below  which  is  a light  ashy  gray 
layer  of  somewhat  loamy  soil  from  2 to  9 inches  in  thickness,  commonly 
referred  to  as  the  “gray  layer”.  The  subsoil  begins  abruptly  at  a depth 
of  from  16  to  20  inches  and  consists  of  a tight,  stiff  brown  or  drab  silty 
clay  or  clay  loam,  locally  known  as  “hardpan”.  It  is  not,  however,  a true 
hardpan,  for  water  passes  through  it,  although  very  slowly.  The  gray 
layer  and  the  heavy  subsoil  are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
prairie  land.  In  general,  the  soil  in  the  northern  part  of  the  level  prairie 
region,  in  Knox  and  Scotland  Counties,  is  darker  in  color,  deeper  and  more 
productive  than  in  the  southern  part  of  the  region.  On  much  of  the  level 
prairie  soil  both  surface  and  underground  drainage  are  inadequate,  and 


Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  in  Co-operative  Tests. 


20 


Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


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Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


21 


in  wet  seasons,  as  well  as  in  very  dry  seasons,  crops  suffer  as  a result  of 
the  unfavorable  moisture  conditions. 

The  soils  on  the  rolling  lands  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  level  prairie 
region  are  quite  variable  and  range  from  dark  brown  to  gray  silt  loams  or 
loams  with  reddish  brown  to  yellowish  gray  clay  loam  or  sandy  clay  sub- 
soils. In  general,  the  soils  are  shallow  and  contain  a relatively  small 
amount  of  organic  matter.  A small  quantity  of  sand  and  fine  gravel  is 
present  in  both  soil  and  subsoil,  and  on  some  of  the  steeper  slopes  where 
the  soil  is  thin,  limestone  rock  outcrops  at  the  surface.  The  surface  fea- 
tures of  the  region  in  general  are  those  of  a vast  smooth  plain  with  a gen- 
tle slope  to  the  southeast.  Along  its  eastern  edge,  bordering  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  the  surface  is  rolling  to  moderate  hilly.  Along  the  river  bluffs 
the  soil  material  is  mostly  loess,  and  is  on  the  average  more  productive  than 
the  soil  of  the  remainder  of  the  region. 

Eighty-five  cooperative  tests  were  conducted  in  this  region,  through  a 
period  of  10  years.  They  are  summarized  in  Table  11. 

The  differences  in  the  productivity  between  the  six  standard  varieties 
are  slight,  the  leaders  being  Commercial  White,  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  and 
Boone  County  White.  Considering  relative  shrinkage,  Learning  should  be 
added  to  this  group.  Johnson  County  White  gave  about  the  same  results 
as  Boone  County  White  in  the  years  in  which  it  was  tested.  Silvermine 
was  distinctly  inferior  to  the  other  varieties  in  the  years  it  was  included. 

Two  outlying  experiment  fields  were  located  in  this  region,  one  at 
Lewistown,  the  other  at  Shelbina.  The  yields  of  varieties  tested  at  Lewis- 
town  during  a five-year  period  are  reported  in  Table  12. 

The  leading  varieties  at  this  point  were  Commercial  White,  Learning, 
and  Reid  Yellow  Dent.  St.  Charles  White  and  Boone  County  White  also 

! -.  ..ib  C nstloO 

Table  12. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Lewistown,  Lewis  County. 

Level  Prairies  of  Northeastern  Missouri. 


VARIETY 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

5 Yrs. 
10-14 

Average 

4 Yrs. 
10-12 
and  14 

; Yields 
4 Yrs. 

io-n 

13-14 

3 Yrs. 
11-13 

Boone  County  White 

57.8 

52.5 

30.8 

15.2 

18.6 

35.0 

39.9 

36.0 

32.8 

Commercial  White 

71.2 

62.8 

36.2 

21.5 

18.8 

42.1 

47.3 

43.6 

40.2 

St.  Charles  White 

62.3 

56.4 

25.4 

14.8 

17.3 

35.2 

40.4 

37.7 

32.2 

Learning 

67.2 

47.9 

34.6 

14.5 

20.6 

37.0 

42.6 

37.6 

32.3 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

64.8 

50.1 

34.1 

8.7 

21.6 

35.9 

42.7 

36.3 

31.0 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

60.5 

51.4 

30.0 

5.4 

17.2 

32.9 

39.8 

33.6 

28.9 

Johnson  County  White 

57.2 

48.3 

27.1 

15.4 

16.2 

32.8 

37.2 

34.3 

30.3 

Silvermine 

49.3 

46.3 

23.2 

20.2 

20.6 

31.9 

34.9 

34.1 

29.9 

Hogue  Y ellow  Dent 

50.8 

45.2 

14.1 

20.0 

32.5 

Cartner 

62.9 

49.4 

26.4 

19.0 

39.4 

Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

53.4 

27.5 

3.9 

28.3 

Calico 

16.0 

22.9 

Golden  Yellow  Dent 

10.9 

16.2 

Tucker  Special 

42.5 

13.0 

Bloody  Butcher 

15.7 

Smoot  Ninety  Day 

18.2 

Funk  Ninety  Day 

19.1 

22  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


yielded  fairly  well.  St.  Charles  Yellow,  Johnson  County  White,  Silvermine, 
Hogue  Yellow  Dent,  Cartner,  and  Hildreth  Yellow  Dent  made  inferior 
yields. 

The  yields  obtained  in  the  variety  test  at  Shelbina  through  a four-year 
period  are  reported  in  Table  13.  The  difference  in  yield  between  the  lead- 
ing varieties  in  this  test  are  slight  and  have  little  significance. 

The  variety  test  at  Columbia  was  located  at  the  souhwestern  edge  of  the 
level  prairies  region,  and  gives  some  indication  of  the  adaptation  of  varieties 
to  the  southern  part  of  this  .region.  In  this  test  the  leading  varieties  were 
Commercial  White,  St.  Charles  White,  and  Boone  County  White. 


Table  13. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Shelbina,  Shelby  County. 


Level  Prairies  of  Northeastern  Missouri. 


VARIETY 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1916 

Average  Yields 

4 Yrs. 
12-16 

3 Yrs. 
12-14 

3 Yrs. 
13-16 

2 Yrs. 
14-16 

Boone  County  White 

34.6 

3.8 

22.6 

13.0 

18.5 

20.3 

13.1 

17.8 

Commercial  White 

34.1 

3.5 

23.0 

15.4 

19.0 

20.2 

14.0 

19.2 

St.  Charles  White 

32.1 

4.8 

24.0 

16.1 

19.3 

20.3 

15.0 

20.1 

Learning 

37.5 

3.9 

27.4 

13.9 

20.7 

22.9 

15.1 

20.7 

ReidjYellow  Dent 

33.9 

4.0 

24.4 

13.5 

19.0 

20.8 

14.0 

19.0 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

31.0 

1.9 

27.6 

15.8 

19.1 

20.2 

15.1 

21.7 

Johnson  County  White 

28.5 

3.7 

23.5 

8.7 

16.1 

18.6 

12.0 

16.1 

Silvermine 

23.9 

6.7 

29.0 

19.9 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent. . . . 

6.6 

31.6 

14.7 

17.6 

23.2 

Cartner 

25.0 

4.3 

21.3 

18.2 

17.2 

16.9 

14.6 

19.8 

Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

27.5 

1.6 

Calico 

42.8 

5.6 

26.8 

12.7 

22.0 

25.1 

15.0 

19.8 

Golden  Yellow  Dent 

3.3 

26.2 

Tucker  Special 

2.3 

Bloody  Butcher 

20.4 

14.7 

17.6 

Smoot  Ninety  Day 

20.7 

8.8 

14.8 

Funk  Ninety  Day 

27.2 

11.8 

19.5 

Eureka 

14.2 

The  leading  variety  for  the  level  prairies  region  was  Commercial  White. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  region  Learning  and  Reid  Yellow  Dent  yielded 
almost  or  quite  as  much  dry  shelled  corn  as  Commercial  White,  and  may 
be  preferable  because  of  their  earlier  maturity  and  better  keeping  quality. 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  region,  however,  these  varieties  were  outyield- 
ed  not  only  by  Commercial  White,  but  also  by  St.  Charles  White  and 
Boone  County  White.  These  five  varieties  outyielded  all  others  tried  in  this 
region. 


GRAY  PRAIRIES  OF  SOUTHWESTERN  MISSOURI 

The  soils  of  the  gray  prairie  region  are  of  two  general  types — flat 
prairies  and  rolling  prairies.  The  rolling  land  is  confined  mostly  to  the  east- 
ern edge  of  the  region.  It  is  mainly  a dark  brown  to  a grayish  brown  fine 
sandy  loam  with  a brown  friable  sandy  clay  subsoil,  highly  mottled  red 
and  yellow.  The  amount  of  sand  in  both  soil  and  subsoil  varies  with  the 


Table  14. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  in  Co-operative  Tests. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


23 


24  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


topography  and  is  greatest  on  the  droughty  rolling  areas,  which  are  fre- 
quently underlaid  by  sandstone  rock.  The  flat  prairie  soils  are  gray  to 
black  sand}'  loams  six  to  twelve  inches  deep,  underlaid  by  a gray  to 
dark  drab  stiff  clay  loam,  mottled  yellow,  brown,  and  gray.  Be- 
tween the  soil  and  subsoil  is  a gray  ashy  layer  containing  iron  con- 
cretions. The  lower  subsoil  is  distinctly  lighter  in  color  and  more  friable 
than  the  upper  portion.  In  general  this  gray  prairie  soil  is  very  similar  in 
physical  characteristics  to  the  level  prairies  of  northeastern  Missouri.  In 
Bates,  Henry,  and  Cooper  Counties  it  is  somewhat  more  productive  than  in 
the  counties  in  the  south  and  in  its  agricultural  importance  approaches  the 
black  prairie  soils. 

In  this  region  39  cooperative  tests  extending  through  a period  of  10 
years,  were  conducted.  They  are  summarized  in  Table  14. 

In  cooperative  tests  in  the  gray  prairie  region  the  highest  yielding  va- 
riety was  Commercial  White,  though  its  advantage  in  yield  over  St.  Charles 
White  and  Boone  County  White  was  not  great.  In  these  tests  there  was 
little  difference  in  yield  between  the  six  standard  varieties. 

The  tests  at  the  experiment  fields  at  Carthage  (Table  16)  and  at  Colum- 
bia (Table  5)  have  some  application  to  this  region,  as  they  were  located  al- 
most on  its  borders,  the  former  on  the  south  and  the  latter  on  the  north. 
In  both  of  these  tests  the  leading  variety  was  Commercial  White.  Apparent- 
ly Commercial  White  is  the  best  adapted  variety  for  the  gray  prairie  region, 
with  St.  Charles  White  and  Boone  County  White  ranking  next  in  value. 


THE  OZARK  BORDER 

The  Ozark  border  soils  form  an  almost  unbroken  belt  around  the 
main  part  of  the  Ozark  region.  They  extend  in  a semi-circle  from  the 
southern  part  of  Cape  Girardeau  County  along  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri 
Rivers  to  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  State.  The  Ozark  border,  as  a 
whole,  has  considerable  variation  in  soils,  but  in  its  agricultural  importance 
and  development  it  is  rather  uniform. 

The  soils  of  the  Ozark  border  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State  are 
almost  uniformly  gravelly  loams,  although  the  occasional  level  areas  are 
generally  stone-free.  They  vary  in  color  from  gray  to  brown,  with  reddish- 
brown  subsoils.  In  texture  they  are  silty,  with  silty  clay  subsoils.  The  con- 
tent of  chert  gravel  varies  from  10  to  50  per  cent,  the  higher  percentage  pre- 
vailing on  the  rolling  areas.  As  a rule,  it  is  not  present  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  make  cultivation  impossible,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  rather  difficult 
In  general,  the  red  soils  are  not  as  gravelly  and  are  more  productive  than 
the  gray  soils. 

The  soils  of  the  Ozark  border  along  the  Missouri  River  are  mainly  yel- 
low and  gray  silt  loams  with  yellowish-gray,  compact,  silty  clay  subsoils. 
Along  the  Mississippi  River  are  extensive  areas  of  red  limestone  soils.  They 
are  stone  free,  contain  a fair  supply  of  organic  matter  and  lime,  and  rep- 
resent the  most  productive  land  in  this  region.  The  rough,  hilly  land 
bordering  the  larger  streams  is  stony  and  much  of  it  is  of  little  agricultural 
value.  In  general,  the  more  productive  land  lies  nearest  the  Missouri  and 


Ozark  Border  (Upland  Soils  Only) 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


2 


26  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


Mississippi  Rivers.  Away  from  the  rivers  the  surface  becomes  more  hilly 
and  the  soils  are  more  stony  and  less  productive. 

In  this  region  66  cooperative  tests  were  made  during  the  nine  year  period 
from  1906  to  1914  inclusive.  They  are  summarized  in  Table  15. 

The  best  yielding  variety  in  the  cooperative  tests  in  the  Ozark  border 
region  wras  Commercial  White,  although  its  advantage  in  yield  over  the 
other  standard  varieties  was  hardly  more  than  sufficient  to  offset  its 
greater  shrinkage.  There  has  been  little  difference  in  yield  between  the 
other  standard  varieties,  the  leaders  being  Boone  County  White  and  St. 
Charles  Yellow. 

Two  outlying  experiment  fields  were  located  in  the  Ozark  border 
region,  one  at  Carthage  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State,  and  the 


Table  16. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Carthage,  Jasper  County. 

Ozark  Border 


VARIETY 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Average  Yi 
4 Yrs. 

"Ids 

3 Yrs. 
11-13 

Boone  County  White 

32.9 

40.2 

49.1 

35.3 

15.7  1 

34.6  ; 

33.3 

33.4 

Commercial  White 

41.1 

43.4 

54.2 

33.4 

19.6  ! 

38.3 

37.1 

35.7 

St.  Charles  White 

30.5 

41.3 

42 . 5 

22.7 

15.5 

30.5 

27.8 

26.9 

Learning 

35.3 

35.7 

45 . 7 

32.5 

17.1 

33.3 

32.7 

31.8 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

36.0 

42.5 

42.6 

36.6 

17.3 

35.0 

33.1 

32.2 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

31.5 

38.8 

39.6 

30.0 

17.6 

31.5 

29.7 

29.1 

Johnson  County  White 

30.9 

41.7 

44.3 

27.3 

14.8 

31.8 

29.3 

28.8 

Silvermine 

27.1 

33.5 

26.6 

30.9 

17.9 

27.2 

25.6 

25.1 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent 

34.9 

36.4 

40.6 

32.4 

18.1  ’ 

32.5 

31.5 

30.4 

Cartner 

31.5 

39.2 

39.4 

30.5 

19.1 

31.9 

30.1 

29.7 

Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

22.6 

47.0 

19.9 

7.3 

24.2 

24.7 

Tucker  Special . . 

41.8 

25.3 

17.4  ! 

28.2 

Calico 

17.0 

Golden  Yellow  Dent 

16.4 

Champion  White  Pearl 

34.3 

Hoffmeister  White. . 

30.3 

| 

other  at  Cape  Girardeau  in  the  southeasern  part.  Both  of  these  stations 
were  located  near  the  edge  of  the  Ozark  border  region  and  the  results  ob- 
tained apply  almost  as  well  to  the  neighboring  regions  as  to  the  Ozark 
border  region.  Thus  the  test  at  Carthage  may  be  applied  to  the  gray 
prairie  region  as  well  as  to  the  Ozark  border  region,  while  the  tests  at 
Cape  Girardeau  apply  to  the  southern  part  of  the  Ozark  border  region  and 
the  northern  part  of  the  southeastern  Missouri  region.  The  results  of  the  va- 
riety tests  at  Carthage  are  shown  in  Table  16. 

Of  the  10  varieties  tested  through  the  five  years  at  Carthage,  Commer- 
cial White,  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  and  Boone  County  White  gave  the  highest 
yields.  Under  the  conditions  at  Carthage  and  in  the  neighboring  territory, 
Commercial  White  is  apparently  the  best  yielding  variety  of  corn,  although 
many  farmers  will  prefer  to  grow  Reid  Yellow  Dent  or  Boone  County 
White  because  of  their  higher  shelling  percentage  and  earlier  maturity.  St. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


27 


Charles  White,  which  is  rather  widely  grown  in  this  part  of  the  State  has 
given  only  fair  yields  in  this  experiment. 

The  result  of  the  varieties  tested  at  Cape  Girardeau  are  shown  in 
Table  17. 

In  this  test  Commercial  White  has  been  the  outstanding  leader.  No 
other  variety  has  approached  it  in  yield.  Moreover,  the  shrinkage  of  Com- 
mercial White  at  Cape  Girardeau  has  not  been  appreciably  higher  than 
that  of  other  varieties. 

Both  Cape  Girardeau  and  Carthage  are  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Oz- 
ark border  region.  A considerable  portion  of  this  region  is  in  central  Mis- 
souri, along  the  Missouri  River  in  the  the  eastern  half  of  the  State.  The 


Table  17. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Cape  Girardeau, 
Cape  Girardeau  County. 

Ozark  Border 


VARIETY 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

4 Yrs. 
16-19 

Averagi 

3 Yrs. 
16-17 
19 

- Yields 

2 Yrs. 
17-19 

2 Yrs. 
16-17 

Boone  County  White 

67.3 

70.9 

50.5 

33.4 

55 . 5 

57.2 

52.2 

69.1 

Commercial  White 

62.2 

83.9 

73.0 

69.0 

72.0 

71.7 

76.5 

73.1 

St.  Charles  White 

57.6 

77.7 

31.5 

55.4 

55.6 

63.6 

66.6 

67.7 

Learning 

65.2 

68.3 

52.0 

42.0 

56.9 

58.5 

55.2 

66.8 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

63.2 

65.9 

42.5 

57.2 

54.2 

64.6 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

48.9 

64.7 

56.8 

Johnson  County  White 

69.7 

Silvermine 

63.6 

26.0 

44.8 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent 

58.9 

Cartner 

65.8 

Calico 

55.5 

Bloody  Butcher 

45.9 

Eureka 

59.3 

Cape  County 

60.8 

86.8 

63.0 

Funk  Ninety  Day 

52.1 

Smoot  Ninety  Day 

46.7 

variety  test  at  Columbia  (Table  5)  applies  more  nearly  to  the  conditions 
in  this  part  of  the  region  than  do  the  tests  at  any  other  station.  In  this 
test,  it  will  be  remembered,  Commercial  White  was  the  leader,  followed 
by  St.  Charles  White  and  Boone  County  White. 

The  leading  variety  in  all  tests  in  the  Ozark  border  region  was  Com- 
mercial White.  Boone  County  White  also  gave  very  good  results  in  all 
tests  in  this  region,  though  in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  region 
the  yield  of  Commercial  White  had  been  far  more  than  that  of  any  other 
variety.  St.  Charles  White  is  well  adapted  to  the  northern  part  of  the 
region  along  the  Missouri  River. 


THE  OZARK  CENTER 

The  soils  of  the  Ozark  region,  with  a few  minor  exceptions,  are  all 
derived  from  cherty  limestones,  and  are,  therefore,  mostly  gravelly  and 
stony  loams.  They  are  usually  gray  in  color  and  are  low  in  organic  matter 


28  Missouri  Agricultural  Experimen  r Station  Bulletin  181 


and  lime.  The  lack  of  organic  matter  gives  rise  to  undue  compactness  in  the 
surface  soil  and  renders  its  tillage  difficult  unless  the  mechanical  handling 
of  the  soil  is  undertaken  when  the  moisture  content  is  neither  too  great 
nor  too  small. 

Throughout  the  Ozark  region  are  found  rather  extensive  areas  of 
relatively  smooth  and  stone-free  soil.  These  areas  occupy  the  highest  parts 
and  represent  the  plateaus  and  broad  inter-stream  divides.  The  soil  is  a 
dark  gray  silt  loam  or  moderately  gravelly  loam,  underlaid  by  yellowish- 
gray,  stiff,  clay  subsoil.  Although  it  is  fairly  easily  cultivated,  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  not  as  productive  as  the  gravelly  land. 

Probably  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  soils  of  the  Ozark  region  are 
stony  loams.  The  most  extensive  areas  of  rough,  stony  land  are  found  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  region — in  Reynolds  and  all  the  surrounding  coun- 
ties. Areas  of  similar  character  occur  along  the  White  River  and  to  a less- 
er extent  along  the  Gasconade  and  Osage  Rivers  and  their  main  tributaries. 
In  these  rough  and  stony  areas  the  narrow  bottoms  along  the  streams  form 
the  only  important  agricultural  land. 

On  most  of  the  moderately  rolling  areas  the  soil  is  a gray  or  brown 
gravelly  loam  with  gravelly  subsoil.  Land  of  this  character  although 
somewhat  difficult  to  handle,  is  of  fair  productivity. 

In  this  region  20  cooperative  tests  were  reported,  covering  a period  of 
eight  years.  The  results  are  summarized  in  Table  18. 

The  highest  yielding  variety  in  the  Ozark  region  was  Commercial  White, 
followed  by  St.  Charles  Yellow  and  Boone  County  White.  The  differences 
in  yield  between  these  three  varieties  were  slight.  St.  Charles  White,  Reid 
Yellow  Dent,  and  Learning  gave  about  equal  yields,  slightly  less  than  the 
three  varieties  mentioned  above.  Johnson  County  White,  during  the  three 
seasons  in  which  it  was  tested,  yielded  about  as  well  as  Boone  County 
White.  It  seems  probable  that  some  of  the  earlier  maturing  varieties,  such 
as  the  so-called  Ninety-Day  varieties,  will  give  better  results  in  this  region 
than  any  of  the  standard  Missouri  varieties,  as  they  will  probably  be  less 
affected  by  drought.  These  varieties  have  been  tested  in  the  region  for 
two  years  and  have  given  substantially  better  yields  than  the  standard 
Missouri  varieties.  In  this  region  of  Missouri,  however,  it  is  probable  that 
the  grain  sorghums,  Kafir  and  Milo,  will  give  better  results  than  any  va- 
riety of  corn. 

THE  LOWLANDS  OF  SOUTHEASTERN  MISSOURI 

With  the  exception  of  a few  narrow  upland  ridges,  the  soils  of  the  south- 
east lowlands  are  alluvial  in  origin.  They  represent,  therefore,  a mixture 
of  material  derived  from  various  sources,  which  has  formed  soils  of  great 
diversity  in  physical  properties  and  in  productivity.  In  texture  they  vary 
from  sands  to  heavy  clays,  and  in  color  from  light  gray  to  deep  black. 

In  general  the  soils  bordering  the  Mississippi  River,  including  Miss- 
issippi and  Scott  counties  and  the  eastern  half  of  New  Madrid  and  Pemi- 
scot counties,  are  dark  brown  loams  and  fine  sandy  loams,  with  yellowish 
gray  fine  sandy  loam  subsoils.  Except  in  the  most  sandy  areas,  these 
soils  contain  a high  percentage  of  organic  matter  and  are  very  productive. 


Table  18. — Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  in  Co-operative  Tests. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


29 


30  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


They  are  well  drained  and  represent  the  most  highly  improved  portion  of 
the  lowland  region. 

The  soils  in  the  central  part  of  the  lowland  region  are  mainly  clay 
loams  or  sandy  clays  with  black,  heavy  clay  subsoils.  They  form  a con- 
tinuous belt  extending  from  the  southern  part  of  Cape  Girardeau  county 
to  the  southern  part  of  Pemiscot  and  Dunklin  counties.  Large  areas  of 
these  very  productive  soils  have  not  yet  been  brought  under  cultivation  and 
are  covered  with  a dense  growth  of  timber.  Drainage  is  necessary  before 
crops  can  be  successfully  grown. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  lowland  region,  the  soils  are  prevailingly 
gray  loams  with  compact  subsoils.  The  content  of  organic  matter  and  lime 
is  low  and  the  soils  are,  therefore,  of  only  moderate  productivity.  Both 
surface  and  under  drainage  are  inadequate. 

Nine  cooperative  tests  were  conducted  in  the  lowlands  of  southeast 
Missouri.  They  are  reported  in  Table  19. 

Although  the  number  of  cooperative  tests  is  small  it  is  clear  from  the 
data  given  in  Table  19,  that  the  later  maturing  varieties,  St.  Charles  White, 

Table  19. — Yields  of  Corx  Varieties  ix  Co-operative  Tests. 


Lowlands  of  Southeastern  Missouri 


VARIETY 

1908 

1910 

1911  1912 

1913 

1,15 

Average  Yield 
6 Years 
1908-15 

Boone  County  White 

74.8 

47.5 

! 63.9  j 46.5 

40.4 

31.4 

50.9 

Commercial  White 

85.8 

37.4 

66.1  j 41.8 

31.7 

29.1 

48.6 

St.  Charles  White 

70.7 

49.8  ■ 

81.3  40.2 

42.9 

27.0 

52.0 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

54.2 

32.9 

36.4  43.3 

43.5 

28.8 

39.8 

Learning j 

68.8 

29.9  j 

46.7  43.3 

40.4 

30.1 

43.2 

St.  Charles  Yellow 

74.4 

43.2 

49.1  I 43.6 

43.5 

29.3 

47.2 

Boone  County  White,  and  Commercial  White  are  better  adapted  than 
others  to  the  lowlands  of  southeastern  Missouri.  St.  Charles  Yellow, 
which  is  a late  maturing  variety,  has  been  the  best  yielding  variety  of  yel- 
low corn,  but  has  not  given  as  high  a yield  as  any  of  the  three  varieties 
of  white  corn  tested. 

Corn  varieties  have  also  been  tested  at  the  outlying  experiment  field 
at  Kennett,  in  southeastern  Missouri,  during  the  last  six  years.  The  results 
of  this  test  are  shown  in  Table  20. 

The  leading  varieties  of  corn  at  Kennett  have  been  Commercial  White 
and  St.  Charles  Yellow,  though  the  differences  in  productivity  between  the 
six  standard  corn  varieties  have  been  slight.  Biggs  Seven-ear,  a variety 
of  prolific  corn  from  the  South,  has  yielded  slightly  more  than  any  other 
variety  during  the  four  years  it  has  been  included  in  the  tests.  It  is 
possible  that  the  late  prolific  varieties  grown  in  the  southern  states  may 
give  better  results  than  even  the  late  standard  varieties  of  Missouri,  but 
their  numerous  small  ears  are  objectionable  on  account  of  the  greater  labor 
required  to  harvest  them.  Several  such  varieties  will  be  tested  at  Kennett 
in  comparison  with  the  better  adapted  Missouri  varieties,  particularly  to 
determine  their  relative  value  for  silage  production. 


Lowlands  of  Southeastern  Missouri. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


31 


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32  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


VARIETY  TESTS  ON  THE  BOTTOM  LANDS  OF  NORTHERN  AND 
SOUTHERN  MISSOURI 

Most  of  the  cooperative  corn  variety  tests  have  been  located  on  upland 
soil,  in  order  to  place  them  on  the  average  corn  soil  of  the  community. 
Each  year,  however,  a few  experiments  have  been  placed  on  bottom  lands 
in  the  various  sections  of  the  State.  Since  there  is  not  a sufficient  num- 
ber to  summarize  the  results  of  these  experiments  by  the  same  soil  types 
as  those  made  on  uplands,  and  since  there  is  no  apparent  reason  for  mak- 
ing such  a grouping  of  these  data,  they  have  been  divided  into  two  groups, 
one  for  northern  Missouri  and  one  for  southern  Missouri.  All  tests  made 
on  the  bottom  lands  within  the  black  prairies,  rolling  prairies,  and  level 
prairies  regions  have  been  placed  in  the  first  group,  and  all  tests  made  on 
bottom  lands  within  the  gray  prairies,  Ozark  border,  and  Ozark  center  re- 
gions have  been  placed  in  the  second. 

The  data  for  corn  variety  tests  on  the  bottom  lands  of  northern  Mis- 
souri are  shown  in  Table  21. 

In  these  tests  the  later-maturing  varieties,  Commercial  White  and 
Boone  County  White,  have  given  better  results  than  the  earlier  maturing 
varieties,  Reid  Yellow  Dent  and  Learning.  Commercial  White  is  the  lead- 
ing variety,  and  both  Boone  County  White  and  St.  Charles  White  appar- 
ently will  give  better  results  than  Reid  Yellow  Dent  and  Learning.  As  the 
moisture  content  of  Commercial  White  corn  has  been  high  in  this  section  of 
the  State,  Boone  County  White  is  to  be  preferred. 

The  yields  of  corn  varieties  on  the  bottom  lands  of  southern  Missouri 
are  shown  in  Table  22. 

On  the  bottomlands  of  southern  Missouri  all  three  standard  varieties  of 
white  corn  have  outyielded  the  standard  varieties  of  yellow  corn  by  a 
considerable  margin.  The  highest  yielding  variety,  considering  shrinkage, 
has  been  Boone  County  White,  as  on  the  bottom  lands  of  northern  Mis- 
souri. The  yields  of  Commercial  White  and  St.  Charles  White  have  also 
been  very  good. 


VARIETIES  OF  CORN  FOR  SILAGE 

Although  special  varieties  of  corn  for  silage  are  often  recommended, 
it  is  a common  custom  to  use  the  same  variety  for  both  silage  and  grain. 
The  total  of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  a pound  of  ear  corn  is  estimated 
as  about  60  per  cent  greater  than  in  a pound  of  stover  (stems,  husks  and 
leaves)  when  the  corn  plant  as  a whole  is  ensilaged.  Consequently  the  va- 
riety which  yields  the  most  grain  will  make  the  richest  silage,  pound  for 
pound,  although  its  total  acre  yield  of  silage  may  fall  below  that  of  other 
varieties  which  yield  a greater  bulk  of  plant  matter  with  less  grain.  If  now 
the  variety  which  makes  a high  yield  of  grain  compares  favorably  in  total 
yield  of  plant  matter  with  varieties  which  yield  less  grain,  it  may  fairly  be 
considered  superior  in  the  production  of  silage  on  the  basis  of  feeding  value 
per  acre. 

All  so-called  special  silage  varieties  are  tall,  heavy  plants  which  pro- 


Bottomlands  of  Northern  Missouri. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


34  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


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Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


35 


duce  low  yields  of  grain,  but  high  yields  of  total  plant  matter.  Eureka, 
or  Eureka  Ensilage,  is  probably  the  best  known  of  these  varieties.  Also 
the  prolific  varieties  of  the  South,  because  of  their  tall  leafy  growth,  are 
sometimes  recommended  for  use  in  silage  production  outside  of  their  adapt- 
ed region.  In  the  seasons  of  1917  and  1918  two  well  known  prolific  va- 
rieties, Cocke  Prolific  and  Biggs  Seven-Ear,  together  with  Eureka,  were 
compared  in  silage  production  with  Commercial  White,  a standard  Mis- 
souri variety  which  during  the  period  1905  to  1915  made  the  highest  aver- 
age yield  of  grain  in  variety  tests  at  Columbia.  Table  23  shows  the  acre 
yields  of  the  varieties  in  tons  of  silage  containing  75  per  cent  of  moisture. 

The  data  show  that  in  each  of  two  extremely  different  seasons — one 
remarkably  goqd  for  corn,  the  other  remarkably  poor — Commercial  White 
has  compared  very  favorably  with  the  special  silage  varieties,  in  acre 
yield  of  total  plant  matter.  As  the  average  of  two  years  Commercial  White 
ranked  second  and  was  outyielded  by  Eureka,  the  leader,  by  less  than  half 
a ton  per  acre. 

Because  of  a serious  shortage  of  labor  during  the  critical  years  of 
1917  and  1918,  no  separate  yields  of  grain  were  actually  measured  for 
these  varieties.  But  by  careful  observation,  it  was  determined  that  Com- 
mercial White  yielded  far  more  grain  than  Eureka,  the  special  silage  va- 
riety, and  somewhat  more  grain  than  either  of  the  two  prolific  varieties. 

A comparison  of  Commercial  White  with  the  two  prolific  varieties  and 
the  special  silage  variety  may  now  be  summarized. 

1.  As  a silage  variety  Commercial  White  was  far  superior  to  the  spe- 
cial silage  corn.  Eureka,  when  the  production  of  grain  as  well  as  total  plant 
matter  is  considered. 

2.  Commercial  White  was  probably  slightly  superior  to  Cocke  Prolific, 
the  better  of  the  two  prolific  varieties,  in  combined  value  of  grain  and 
other  plant  parts.  At  least  it  can  safely  be  said  that  the  prolific  variety 
was  not  a better  silage  producer  than  Commercial  White.  This  comparison 
would  leave  the  advantage  with  Commercial  White,  for  unless  a prolific 
variety  will  heavily  outvield  a standard  variety  it  is  undesirable,  on  ac- 
count of  its  late  maturity  and  the  difficulty  of  preventing  it  from  mixing 
with  other  varieties. 


A COMPARISON  OF  STANDARD  VARIETIES  FOR  SILAGE 

It  is  important  to  compare  also  the  standard  varieties  with  one  an- 
other for  their  value  in  silage  production.  Accordingly  Table  24  gives  the 
following  data: 

(1)  in  column  7 the  average  acre-yields  of  10  well  known  standard  va- 
rieties, in  ear  corn  and  stover  (stems,  husks  and  leaves)  during  a six  year 
period  at  Columbia. 

(2)  in  column  8 the  silage  equivalents  computed  from  the  yields  of  ear 
corn  and  stover  assumed  to  contain  20  per  cent  moisture. 

(3)  in  column  9 the  yields  in  pounds  of  ear  corn  for  each  1000  pounds 
of  stover  produced. 


36  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


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Corn  Varieties  and  T 


heir  Improvement 


37 


(4)  in  column  10  the  relative  value  of  the  varieties  for  silage,  assum- 
ing a pound  of  ear  corn  to  contain  60  per  cent*  more  of  total  digestible  nu- 
trients than  a pound  of  stover. 

Among  the  standard  varieties  Commercial  White  . was  the  outstanding 
leader  in  the  production  of  silage,  because  of  its  high  yield  of  both  grain 
and  stover.  The  varieties  ranking  next  are  St.  Charles  White,  St.  Charles 
Yellow,  and  Cartner,  with  little  difference  between  them.  The  third  group— 
Boone  County  White,  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  Learning,  Johnson  County  White, 
White,  Silvermine  and  Hogue  Yellow  Dent— do  not  rank  as  silae-e  va- 

ERROR  CORRECTION 

On  page  36,  “Table  23”  should  read  “Table  24.”  Table  properly  numbered 
23  is  supplied  herewith. 


Table  23. — Silage  Yields  of  Corn  Varieties  at  Columbia. 
(In  Tons  of  Silage  Containing  75  percent  of  Moisture) 


Variety 

Yield  per  Acre 

1917 

1918 

Average 

Eureka  Ensilage 

16.03 

6.27 

11.15 

Cocke  Prolific 

15.25 

6.13 

10.69 

Biggs  Seven-ear 

12.56 

5.53 

9.05 

Commercial  White 

15.24 

6.44 

10.84 

uotiom  ianas  in  ail  parts  ot  the  State  and  one  ot  the  leaders  on  uplands 
throughout  central  and  southern  Missouri.  The  variety  Johnson  County 
White  is  so  similar  to  Boone  County  White  in  general  features  and  adapta- 
tion that  for  practical  purposes  the  two  varieties  may  be  considered  as  one. 

Commercial  White:  A late  maturing  variety  of  white  corn  grown 

fairly  extensively  in  southwestern  Missouri,  where  it  was  originated.  In 
these  tests  it  was  the  highest  yielding  variety  throughout  central  and  south- 
ern Missouri  and  gave  good  yields  on  bottom  lands  all  over  the  State. 
This  variety  does  not  mature  well  in  the  average  season  in  northern  and 
central  Missouri  and  consequently  yields  grain  of  high  moisture  content  and 
poor  keeping  quality.  The  danger  of  producing  soft  corn  and  the  difficulty 
of  securing  seed  of  good  germination  are  increased  by  growing  a variety 
so  late  in  maturity.  In  the  southern  third  of  the  State,  where  the  growing 
season  is  longer,  the  variety  will  mature  fairly  well  and  is  free  from  most 
of  the  disadvantages  named.  In  this  section  it  will  out-yield  the  other  va- 
rieties by  a considerable  margin.  It  is  to  be  recommended  as  a variety  for 
grain  in  the  southern  third  of  Missouri,  and  as  a variety  for  silage  in  any 
part  of  the  State,  but  particularly  the  southern  part. 

St.  Charles  White:  A medium  late  maturing  variety  of  white  corn  ex- 

tensively grown  in  southern  Missouri.  In  the  tests  St.  Charles  White  was 


38  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


found  to  be  one  of  the  leading  varieties  for  grain  in  central  and  south- 
eastern Missouri  and  a good  yielder  on  bottom  lands  all  over  the  State. 
This  variety  is  an  exceptionally  good  silage  variety,  producing  a heavy 
yield  of  silage  of  good  quality  without  extremely  late  maturity. 

Reid  Yellow  Dent:  A medium  early  maturing  variety  of  yellow  corn 

widely  grown  in  Missouri,  particularly  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State. 
In  these  tests  it  was  found  an  especially  good  yielder  on  the  upland  soils 
in  the  northern  third  of  the  State,  particularly  in  the  western  portion.  In 
southern  Missouri  and  in  the  bottom  lands  of  northern  Missouri  it  will 
not  yield  as  well  as  Boone  County  White  or  Commercial  White. 

Learning:  A medium  early  maturing  variety  of  yellow  corn,  similar 

in  adaptation  to  Reid  Yellow  Dent.  This  variety  is  not  widely  grown  in 
Missouri  and  adapted  seed  is  therefore  hard  to  obtain.  It  has  no  marked 
advantage  over  Reid  Yellow  Dent  and  as  improved  and  adapted  seed  of  the 
latter  is  available  in  abundance.  Learning  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

St.  Charles  Yellow:  A late  maturing  variety  of  yellow  corn  which 

in  general  gave  good  yields  in  the  tests,  but  did  not  lead  in  any  section. 
In  northern  and  central  Missouri  it  does  not  mature  well  in  the  average 
season  and  has  the  same  disadvantages  as  Commercial  White  without  its 
high  yield.  In  southeastern  Missouri  St.  Charles  Yellow  has  given  good 
yields  but  offers  no  advantages  over  St.  Charles  White  and  Commercial 
White. 


CORN  IMPROVEMENT 

Although  certain  varieties  of  corn  are  clearly  superior  in  yield  and 
quality  to  others,  under  Missouri  conditions,  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  a 
wide  variation  may  occur  between  strains  of  the  same  variety.  Few  eco- 
nomic plants  are  more  variable  than  corn.  By  continual  selection  to- 
ward a definite  type  the  character  of  a strain  of  corn  may  be  modified  to 
an  astonishing  degree.  When  corn  is  moved  to  a new  locality  it  gradually 
changes  and  adapts  itself  to  the  new  conditions.  Therefore  the  limits  of 
corn  varieties  are  necessarily  vague.  It  cannot  truly  be  said,  in  the  strict- 
est sense,  that  any  one  variety  of  corn  is  better  adapted  than  all  others 
to  a given  region,  for  the  difference  in  yield  and  other  characters  between 
the  strains  of  the  same  variety  is  sometimes  greater  than  the  difference 
between  fairly  typical  strains  of  different  varieties.  For  example,  at  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  a number  of  strains  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent  varied 
widely  in  a yield  test,  though  all  were  of  good  type  and  were  furnished 
by  growers  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent  for  seed  in  Iowa.  Thus  in  1919  the 
highest  yielding  strain  yielded  76.8  bushels  per  acre,  while  another  strain 
grown  on  the  same  field  under  the  same  conditions  yielded  only  51  bush- 
els per  acre.  In  other  words,  improved  strains  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent  have 
varied  in  yield  fully  as  much  as  one  would  expect  different  varieties  to 
vary.  If  ordinary,  unimproved  strains  had  been  included  in  the  test  prob- 
ably the  variation  would  have  been  even  greater.  Therefore,  it  may  not 
always  be  wise  to  give  up  an  adapted  and  improved  strain  of  a good  variety 
because  another  variety  has  yielded  more  in  a variety  test.  In  the  variety 
tests  reported  in  this  bulletin  the  best  strains  of  each  variety  available 
were  used,  but  except  in  cases  of  large  differences  in  average  yields  be- 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


39 


tween  varieties,  it  is  not  recommended  that  strains  which  have  been  select- 
ed toward  a desirable  type  and  have  proved  satisfactory  be  abandoned 
for  varieties  yielding  better  in  the  tests. 

The  difference  in  ability  to  yield  between  strains  of  the  same  variety 
is  caused  by  differences  in  the  natural  conditions  under  which  they  have 
been  grown  and  in  the  selection  or  other  means  which  have  been  used 
in  their  improvement.  In  buying  seed  corn  it  should  be  remembered  that 
t’e  strain  is  almost  as  important  as  the  variety,  and  further,  that  the  value 
of  the  strain  for  any  one  place  depends  upon  two  things,  how  nearly  the 
natural  conditions  under  which  it  has  been  recently  grown  approach  those 
under  which  it  is  to  be  grown,  and  how  well  it  has  been  improved  by  se- 
lection or  other  means.  Seed  corn  imported  from  a region  where  the 
growing  season  is  long  will  be  late  in  maturity,  while  seed  corn  from  a 
region  where  the  growing  season  is  short  will  be  early.  Seed  corn  from 
as  far  as  100  miles  south  is  to  be  avoided,  and  seed  corn  from  100  miles 
north,  though  not  so  undesirable,  is  not  recommended. 

The  principal  methods  which  have  been  advocated  for  increasing  the 
yielding  ability  of  corn  are  (1)  continuous  selection  in  the  field,  (2)  pedi- 
gree selection,  (3)  crossing  varieties,  and  (4)  crossing  inbred  strains. 
There  has  been  much  investigation  of  the  value  of  these  methods  which 
is  here  briefly  reviewed. 

Continuous  Selection.  Continuous  field  selection  is  the  method  by 
which  most  of  the  varieties  of  corn  now  in  existence  have  been  developed. 
The  well  marked  features  of  such  varieties  as  Learning,  Reid  Yellow 
Dent,  and  Boone  County  White,  in  which  selection  has  been  carried  on 
for  many  years,  prove  the  power  of  selection  in  changing  the  type  of 
both  the  ear  and  the  plant.  This  has  been  shown  most  strikingly  in  a 
number  of  experiments  in  which  selection  has  been  made  in  opposite  di- 
rections in  the  same  strain  of  corn.  For  example,  at  the  Illinois  Station, 
a high-protein  strain  containing  about  15  per  cent  of  protein,  a low-protein 
strain  containing  about  6 per  cent  of  protein,  a high  oil  strain  containing 
about  9 per  cent  of  oil,  and  a low-oil  strain  containing  about  2 per  cen-t 
of  oil  have  all  been  produced  by  continuous  selection  from  one  original 
strain  containing  about  11  per  cent  of  protein  and  about  5 per  cent  of  oil. 
By  the  same  process  the  height  of  the  ear  and  the  angle  at  which  it  is 
borne  have  also  been  greatly  changed.  At  the  Indiana  Station  the  tend- 
ency to  bear  suckers  was  found  to  be  readily  changed  by  selection.  At  the 
Ohio  Station  features  of  the  ear  have  been  modified  materially  in  selection 
experiments.  Apparently  it  is  possible  to  mold  the  type  of  corn  almost 
at  will,  if  selection  toward  any  desired  type  is  continued  long  enough. 

But  selection  to  increase  the  yield  has  not  given  such  marked  results. 
Selection  for  yield  is  a much  more  difficult  matter  than  selection  for  any 
sr'ngle  visible  feature,  because  yield  is  determined  by  so  many  factors,  and 
these  factors  vary  widely  in  their  importance  in  different  seasons.  If  one 
or  a few  visible  features  were  known  to  be  always  connected  with  yield 
it  would  be  a simple  matter  to  increase  yield  by  selection.  It  was  assumed 
for  many  years  that  certain  features  of  the  ear  were  connected  with  high 
yielding  ability  and  these  features  were  emphasized  on  the  score 
card  and  in  corn  shows.  But  very  thorough  investigation  has  failed  to 


40  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


reveal  a consistent  connection  between  yield  and  any  feature  commonly 
considered  desirable  in  show  corn.  Thus,  tapering  ears  have  been  found 
to  yield  as  well  as  cylindrical  ears;  ears  with  bare  tips  have  yielded  as 
much  as  ears  with  well  covered  tips,  and  so  on.  Plant  features  as  well 
as  ear  features  have  been  investigated,  and  thus  far  no  visible  feature  of 
the  ear  or  of  the  plant  has  been  found  which  may  serve  as  a reliable  index 
to  yield.  Some  experiments  have  indicated  that  selection  for  large  ears 
may  increase  the  yield,  though  this  has  not  been  definitely  proved. 

But  field  selection  of  seed  corn  is  undoubtedly  a profitable  practice, 
even  if  no  increase  in  yield  can  be  made.  By  selecting  seed  corn  in  the 
field  before  the  first  killing  frost  it  is  possible  to  obtain  sound  seed  ears 
from  healthy  plants  of  desirable  form.  Moreover,  if  selection  is  made  for 
yielding  ability  itself,  that  is,  if  seed  is  selected  only  from  plants  which 
have  yielded  well  without  any  advantage  in  growing  conditions,  it  is  like- 
ly that  the  yield  of  the  strain  can  be  increased.  Increases  in  yield  ob- 
tained by  this  sort  of  selection  have  been  reported  in  some  experiments, 
although  it  is  true  that  carefully  conducted  experiments  in  which  well 
adapted  and  improved  varieties  have  been  used  in  the  corn  belt  region 
have  generally  failed  to  show  an  increase.  It  is  easily  possible  by  this 
method  to  develop  an  earlier  maturing  type,  to  reduce  the  prevalence  of 
disease,  and  to  change  the  type  of  both  plant  and  ear. 

Pedigree  Selection.  The  difficulty  of  recognizing  the  plants  of  highest 
yielding  ability  from  their  appearance  alone  led  to  the  development  of 
pedigree  selection.  Several  methods  of  pedigree  selection  have  been  rec- 
ommended, but  the  essentials  of  all  of  them  are  similar. 

A large  number  of  desirable  ears  are  selected  and  their  yield  under 
the  same  conditions  is  determined  in  an  “ear-row”  test,  in  which  seed  from 
each  ear  is  planted  in  a separate  row.  The  ear-rows  usually  show  rather 
distinct  differences  in  plant  features,  maturity,  disease  resistance,  and 
yield.  The  ear-row  test  may  be  run  either  one  or  two  seasons  from  the 
same  ears.  Part  of  the  seed  from  each  of  the  original  ears  is  retained 
and  the  remnants  of  the  ears  found  best  in  yield  and  other  features  in  the 
ear-row  test  are  mixed  together  and  planted  as  foundation  stock  for  an  im- 
proved strain. 

Pedigree  selection  has  been  very  strongly  recommended  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  this  method  is  used  rather  extensively  by  farmers.  It 
is  relatively  an  easy  matter  to  make  rapid  progress  in  obtaining  earliness 
of  maturity  or  desirable  plant  features  by  this  method.  Some  consider- 
able increases  in  yield  by  pedigree  selection  have  also  been  reported,  but 
in  most  cases  these  have  been  obtained  in  varieties  which  had  not  pre- 
viously been  highly  improved  or  in  sections  where  the  varieties  grown 
were  not  perfectly  adapted.  None  of  the  experiment  stations  in  the  corn 
belt  states,  except  the  Ohio  Station,  have  reported  pronounced  increases 
obtained  by  pedigree  selection.  At  the  Nebraska  Station  over  15  years 
of  very  careful  pedigree  selection  work  with  Hogue  Yellow  Dent  failed  to 
produce  a strain  at  all  superior  in  yield  to  the  strain  carried  on  from  the 
start  by  ordinary  continuous  selection.  Although  attractive  in  theory,  pedi- 
gree selection  in  corn  has  been,  on  the  whole,  disappointing  in  practice. 
Perhaps  this  is  caused  by  narrow  breeding  resulting  from  choosing  a small 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


41 


number  of  ears  to  serve  as  foundation  stock.  Perhaps  it  is  impossible  to 
find  the  ears  naturally  best  in  yielding  power  in  only  one  or  two  years’ 
tests.  Perhaps  the  seeds  planted  in  the  ear-row  do  not  represent  fairly  the 
qualities  of  the  seeds  in  the  remnant  retained,  because  of  fertilization  by 
different  pollen.  At  any  rate,  it  seems  that  little  more  improvement  is 
to  be  expected  from  pedigree  selection  in  well  adapted  strains  of  corn 
than  can  be  obtained  by  ordinary  continuous  selection  in  the  field.  Cer- 
tainly under  farm  conditions  it  is  not  only  expensive  to  carry  on  careful 
car-row  tests,  but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  reliable  results  from 
them.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  then,  the  method  of  pedigree  selection 
is  not  recommended  for  use  on  the  farm. 

Crossing  Varieties.  When  two  varieties  are  crossed,  the  hybrid  is 
usually  more  vigorous  in  growth  and  higher  in  yield  than  the  average  of 
the  parents.  The  hybrid  vigor  gained  is  greater  in  some  crosses  than  in 
others  and  seems  greatest  when  the  parent  varieties  have  been  closely  bred 
for  a long  time  and  when  they  are  not  closely  related.  The  most  successful 
crosses  reported  have  been  those  between  flint  corn  and  dent  corn  varie- 
ties. But  in  all  cases  the  hybrid  vigor  is  greatest  in  the  first  generation 
following  the  cross  and  rapidly  decreases  thereafter. 

A varietal  cross  hasi  no  practical  value  unless  the  hybrid  out-yields  the 
higher  yielding  parent  and  can  be  relied  on  to  do  so  in  the  average  of 
a series  of  seasons.  Moreover,  the  gain  must  be  great  enough  to  pay  the 
expense  involved  in  making  the  cross  every  year.  This  expense  is  not 
very  great  as  hybrid  seed  can  easily  be  produced  by  planting  in  alternate 
rows  the  varieties  to  be  crossed  and  detasselling  plants  of  one  variety.  The 
seed  borne  on  detasselled  plants  will  then  be  hybrid  seed,  and  the  seed 
borne  on  plants  not  detasselled  will  be  pure  seed  of  one  of  the  parent  va- 
rieties. Pure  seed  of  the  other  parent  variety  must  be  produced  in  a field 
far  enough  from  other  corn  fields  to  prevent  foreign  pollen  from  reach- 
ing it. 

First  generation  hybrids  of  varietal  crosses  which  are  said  to  be  of 
practical  value  have  been  produced  by  the  Connecticut  and  Minnesota  ex- 
periment stations.  At  the  Connecticut  Station,  of  50  varietal  crosses  made, 
88  percent  yielded  more  than  the  average  of  the  parents  and  66  percent 
yielded  more  than  the  higher  yielding  parent.  The  average  yield  of  the 
crosses  was  about  9 per  cent  more  than  that  of  their  parents.  Some  crosses 
exceeded  their  parents  by  more  than  10  bushels  per  acre.  At  the  Minneso- 
ta Station  several  crosses  have  produced  increases  in  yield  over  the  better 
yielding  parents,  and  one  cross  of  two  well  adapted  varieties  has  produced 
7 bushels  more  than  the  better  yielding  parent  in  the  average  of  a four-year 
test. 

In  the  corn  belt  states,  however,  varietal  crosses  have  not  given  such 
striking  results.  Some  crosses  giving  higher  yields  than  either  parent  have 
been  produced,  but  most  crosses  between  well  adapted  varieties  have  been 
found  to  give  yields  lower  than  those  of  the  higher  yielding  parents.  Up  to 
the  present  time  no  varietal  cross  has  been  found  in  any  of  the  corn  belt 
states  which  can  be  relied  upon  to  produce  a higher  average  yield  in  a 
series  of  seasons  than  the  best  commercial  varieties  now  obtainable.  It 
may  be  that  the  varieties  in  use  in  the  corn  belt  have  been  improved  to 


42  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


such  a point  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  produce  superior  strains  there  than 
in  regions  where  corn  has  not  been  grown  so  extensively.  Possibly,  also, 
the  fact  that  the  best  corn  belt  varieties  are  more  closely  related  than  are 
the  best  varieties  in  northern  States  where  both  flint  and  dent  corn  is 
growm  increases  the  difficulty  of  producing  profitable  varietal  crosses. 
However,  varietal  crosses  superior  to  the  best  varieties  now  being  grown  in 
the  corn  belt  may  yet  be  found,  after  more  combinations  have  been  tried. 

Some  experiments  indicate  that  there  is  an  increase  in  yield  from  cross- 
ing not  only  in  the  crop  grown  from  the  hybrid  seed,  but  also  in  the  crop  of 
the  season  in  which  the  cross  is  made.  If  this  is  true,  a mixture  of  va- 
rieties might  give  a larger  yield  than  any  of  the  varieties  making  up  the 
mixture,  grown  alone.  In  the  two  experiments  which  have  been  reported 
on  this  point,  mixtures  have  yielded  slightly  better  than  any  of  the  includ- 
ed varieties.  But  it  has  not  been  shown  that  such  an  increase  will  take 
place  in  all  varietal  mixtures  or  that  in  the  same  mixture  the  increase  will 
be  made  in  different  seasons.  The  effects  of  crossing  some  of  the  standard 
Missouri  varieties,  both  on  the  yield  of  the  current  crop  and  of  the  cross 
produced  from  hybrid  seed,  are  being  investigated  in  experiments  now  in 
progress  at  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station.  For  the  present,  however, 
no  varietal  crosses  or  mixtures  are  known  to  be  desirable  in  this  State. 

Crossing  Inbred  Strains.  Corn  is  naturally  cross-fertilized,  and  con- 
tinual self-fertilization,  or  inbreeding,  rapidly  reduces  its  vigor.  When  the 
progeny  of  an  ear  of  corn  is  continually  self-fertilized  a very  rapid  de- 
crease in  plant  vigor  takes  place  in  the  first  few  generations,  shown  by  a 
decrease  in  the  height  of  the  plant,  the  size  of  the  ear,  and  the  yield.  Af- 
ter about  six  to  eight  generations  the  inbred  strains  usually  reach  a level  of 
vigor  which  is  held  thereafter.  The  number  of  generations  necessary  to 
bring  the  strains  to  this  constant  level  varies.  The  rate  of  decrease  in 
vigor  is  also  very  different  in  different  strains,  some  dying  out  completely 
wdthin  a few  generations,  some  rapidly  reaching  a constant  state  of  more  or 
less  reduced  vigor,  and  some  reaching  this  condition  more  slowly.  By  the 
time  the  inbred  strain  has  reached  a fairly  constant  state  of  vigor,  it  has 
become  remarkably  uniform  in  type.  Thus  after  several  generations  of  in- 
breding  of  an  ordinary  commercial  variety  several  strains  are  obtained,  all 
less  vigorous  than  the  original  variety  and  differing  widely  in  their  ap- 
pearance, vigor  and  yield,  but  each  almost  perfectly  uniform  within  itself. 

For  example,  at  the  Connecticut  Station  four  plants  of  Learning  yellow 
dent  corn  were  self-pollinated  in  1905  and  the  strains  then  produced  have 
been  inbred  in  each  succeeding  season.  The  yields  in  these  four  strains 
steadily  decreased  as  inbreeding  progressed,  and  in  the  tenth  generation 
the  yields  of  the  four  strains  were  32.8,  32.7,  19.2  and  31.8  bushels  per  acre 
respectively,  while  the  original  Learning  corn  grown  on  the  same  field  and 
under  the  same  conditions  yielded  74.7  bushels. 

When  two  of  these  apparently  worthless  inbred  strains  are  crossed 
very  surprising  results  are  obtained.  The  vigor  lost  by  constant  inbreed- 
ing is  suddenly  regained  and  the  yield  is  in  many  cases  enormously  increased. 
Seventeen  crosses  of  the  four  inbred  strains  of  Learning  corn  mentioned 
above  are  reported  by  the  Connecticut  Station.  The  average  yields  of  the 
parent  strains  used  in  these  crosses  were  27.8  and  27.2  bushels  per  acre, 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


43 


while  the  average  yield  obtained  in  the  same  season  and  under  like  con- 
ditions from  the  hybrid  seed  was  78.4  bushels.  Some  of  the  crosses  of  in- 
bred  strains  have  outyielded  the  original  Learning  parent  by  more  than  20 
bushels  per  acre.  Moreover,  the  crosses  have  the  uniformity  of  the  in- 
bred  strains.  Practically  every  plant  bears  a sizeable  ear,  and  the  mon- 
strosities common  in  the  ordinary  corn  field  never  occur. 

Not  all  crosses  between  inbred  strains  are  highly  productive.  Some 
strains  apparently  “nick”  much  better  than  others.  There  seems  to  be  a 
fairly  general  but  by  no  means  invariable  relation  between  the  yield  of 
the  strains  crossed  and  of  the  hybrids  obtained.  Crosses  between  very 
closely  related  strains  are  nearly  always  less  productive  than  crosses  be- 
tween strains  not  closely  related.  The  gain  made  in  the  first  generation 
hybrid  is  not  maintained,  so  it  is  necessary  to  produce  crossed  seed  every 
year  or  two.  As  most  inbred  strains  are  low  in  vigor  and  bear  stunted  ears 
and  grains  of  poor  size  and  quality,  the  hybrid  seed  is  usually  inferior,  to  the 
great  disadvantage  of  the  first  generation  crop.  This  disadvantage  may  be 
overcome,  however,  by  double  crossing;  that  is,  the  crossing  of  two  vig- 
orous strains,  themselves  produced  by  the  crossing  of  inbred  strains. 

It  seems  quite  likely  that  in  the  future  the  most  marked  improvement 
of  corn  will  be  gained  by  the  production,  selection,  and  crossing  of  in- 
bred  strains.  This  method  offers  possibilities  which  could  not  be  approach- 
ed by  older  methods.  The  inbreeding  and  crossing  could  all  be  done  by 
breeders,  who  would  sell  the  hybrid  seed  of  crosses  found  by  experience  to 
be  well  suited  to  the  conditions  of  limited  regions.  Such  seed  would  be 
worth  a much  higher  price  than  any  seed  corn  now  on  the  market.  Its 
value  would  decrease  very  considerably  in  a few  seasons  and  it  would  prob- 
ably be  advisable  for  farmers  to  purchase  new  seed  every  season.  The 
discoverer  of  a valuable  cross  would  retain  the  inbred  strains  and  sell 
the  hybrid  seed  from  them  each  year,  thus  gaining  a financial  reward 
comparable  to  that  of  successful  animal  breeders.  Such  opportunities  for 
profit  in  corn  breeding  would  provide  a stimulus  which  could  not  fail  to 
result  in  the  production  of  valuable  improvements. 

These  results,  however,  are  not  immediately  obtainable.  Much  ex- 
perimental work  must  be  done  in  investigating  the  methods  outlined  above 
and  in  devising  means  for  their  practical  use.  This  work  is  now  being 
done  at  several  experiment  stations.  For  the  present  it  is  extremely  un- 
likely that  valuable  results  will  be  attained  in  this  line  of  breeding  by  any 
one  not  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  fundamental  facts  of  inheritance  in 
corn.  At  the  present  time  the  method  is  of  interest  not  because  it  offers 
the  prospect  of  immediate  profit,  but  because  of  its  promise  of  future  value. 

HEALTH  AND  VIABILITY  OF  SEED 

In  addition  to  inherent  ability  to  produce  high  yielding  plants,  good 
seed  must  have  the  power  to  germinate  and  produce  thrifty  seedlings  and 
must  be  free  from  seed-borne  disease.  The  use  of  seed  with  a low  power 
of  germination  and  of  seed  infected  with  highly  injurious  diseases  causes 
enormous  loss  to  corn  growers  every  year.  It  is  probable  that  a far  great- 
er gain  in  yield  per  acre  over  the  country  as  a whole  can  be  made  by  im- 


44  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


proving  the  quality  of  seed  simply  in  germinating  power  and  health,  than 
can  be  made  by  breeding  directly  for  high  yields. 

Germinating  Power  of  Seed.  The  production  of  seed  of  high  germin- 
ating power  is  almost  wholly  a matter  of  reducing  the  moisture  content  to  a low 
point  before  the  seed  is  subjected  to  extreme  temperatures,  either  high  or  low. 
The  relation  between  moisture  content  and  freezing  injury  is  strikingly  shown  by 
recent  experiments  at  the  Nebraska  Station.  Samples  of  seed  containing  differ- 
ent percentages  of  moisture  were  subjected  to  a temperature  of  28-32° 
Fahrenheit  for  24  hours.  The  germination  of  corn  containing  less  than 
25  per  cent  of  moisture  was  not  at  all  injured  by  this  treatment,  while  corn 


Fig.  3.  Three  good  methods  of  drying  seed  corn.  The  hanger  in  the  center  is  cut  from 
electrically  welded  wire  fencing. 


containing  35-45  per  cent  moisture  germinated  only  80  per  cent,  and  corn 
containing  45-55  per  cent  moisture  germinated  only  33  per  cent  after  the 
treatment.  The  corn  containing  25  per  cent  moisture,  which  was  not  in- 
jured in  germination  by  a temperature  of  28-32°,  germinated  only  88  per 
cent  when  exposed  to  a temperature  of  12-16°;  and  only  27  per  cent  when 
exposed  to  a temperature  of  4-8°  for  24  hours.  Air-dry  corn  contains  only 
about  10-14  per  cent  of  moisture.  Corn  as  dry  as  this  was  found  to  with- 
stand the  temperature  of  liquid  air,  190  degrees  below  zero.  Contrary  to 
the  general  impression,  the  first  killing  frost  is  not  the  main  cause  of 
freezing  injury  of  seed  corn.  The  greatest  damage  is  apparently  done  by 
continued  freezing  temperatures  in  the  late  fall.  Seed  selected  immediately 
after  the  first  killing  frost,  and  properly  stored,  so  as  to  dry  out  rapidly, 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


45 


will  germinate  well.  For  several  reasons  seed  corn  should  be  selected  be- 
fore the  first  killing  frost,  but  when  this  is  not  done,  seed  selected  immed- 
iately after  the  frost  can  be  used  with  satisfactory  results. 

The  average  date  of  the  first  killing  frost  in  Missouri  is  about  Octo- 
ber 10th  in  the  northern  section,  October  15  in  the  central  section  and  in 
the  Ozark  region,  and  October  20  in  the  southeastern  section.  These  dates 
are  variable  and  may  differ  by  as  much  as  two  or  three  weeks  in  different 
seasons.  The  variety  of  corn  grown  should  be  one  which  will  mature  un- 
der normal  conditions  in  ordinary  seasons,  but  not  necessarily  in  the  short- 
est season,  for  the  later  maturing  varieties  generally  outyield  the  earlier 
maturing  varieties.  The  number  of  days  required  for  maturity  varies  with 
seasonal  conditions  and  with  the  date  of  planting,  although  it  is  influenced 
greatly  by  the  variety.  It  is  probably  best  to  grow  neither  the  latest  and 
heaviest  yielding  variety  nor  the  earliest  variety  available,  but  to  grow 
one  which  is  early  enough  to  escape  freezing  injury  in  all  but  the  excep- 
tionally short  seasons,  and  to  depend  upon  early  seed  selection  and  a re- 
serve supply  of  seed  for  such  seasons.  With  most  varieties  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  by  selection  a strain  fully  a week  earlier  in  maturity  without  sac- 
rificing yielding  ability.  Such  selection  should  be  made  early  in  the  fall 
before  the  first  killing  frost,  when  the  variation  in  maturity  is  most  appar- 
ent. 

The  safest  way  to  obtain  sound  seed  corn  of  high  germinating  power 
is  to  select  it  in  the  field  from  the  standing  stalks  before  or  immediate- 
ly after  the  first  killing  frost.  Such  selection  also  gives  an  opportunity 
for  improvement  of  the  corn.  Although  this  practice  is  undoubtedly  a 
profitable  one,  it  involves  extra  labor  which  some  are  unwilling  or  unable 
to  give.  Seed  of  high  germination  may  in  most  seasons  be  obtained  while 
husking  for  early  feed  or  even  at  the  time  of  general  husking.  Whether 
early  field  selection  is  practiced  regularly  or  not,  seed  corn  should  always 
be  gathered  in  the  field  in  early  fall  in  seasons  when  corn  in  general  is  late 
in  maturity  and  seems  in  danger  of  being  caught  by  frost. 

The  germinating  power  of  the  seed  is  influenced  fully  as  much  by  the 
method  of  storage  as  by  the  method  of  selection.  It  is  essential  that  seed 
ears  be  stored  in  such  a way  that  they  may  dry  out  rapidly.  The  germin- 
ation test  should  not  be  regarded  as  a substitute  for  proper  selection  and 
storage.  Ears  of  perfect  germination  can  usually  be  selected  from  the 
crib,  but  ears  which  have  been  properly  stored  may  outyield  them  even 
if  the  germination  of  both  samples  is  perfect.  For  example,  in  a test  re- 
ported by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  400  ears  were  di- 
vided into  two  equal  lots,  one  of  which  was  well  cared  for  and  the  other 
placed  in  a barn  as  corn  ordinarily  is  cribbed.  The  well  preserved  seed 
produced  yields  12  per  cent  higher  on  poor  soil  and  27  per  cent  higher 
on  fertile  soil  than  that  poorly  preserved,  although  both  lots  of  seed  germ- 
inated equally  well.  Methods  of  storage  are  discussed  on  page  48. 

Seed-Borne  Diseases.  Several  important  diseases  of  corn,  particularly 
those  causing  root,  stalk,  and  ear  rots,  appear  to  be  carried  over  from  one 
generation  to  the  next  largely  by  the  seed.  These  diseases  are  extremely 
important  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  they  cause  a loss  of  10  per  cent 
in  the  yield  of  corn  in  the  United  States.  The  losses  they  cause  result 


46  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


from  the  death  of  infected  plants  in  the  seeding  stage,  from  the  stunting 
of  other  plants,  from  delayed  maturity,  and  from  the  rotting  of  roots,  stalks, 
ears  and  shanks.  They  are  very  generally  distributed  and  seem  to  be  pres- 
ent in  every  corn  growing  section  of  Missouri. 

It  is  found  in  ear-row  tests  that  plants  from  some  ears  are  much  less 
affected  by  disease  than  those  from  other  ears,  a fact  which  indicates  that 
these  diseases  can  be  controlled  in  large  measure  through  the  use  of  seed 
free  from  disease.  Much  can  be  done  to  control  disease  in  corn  by  care- 
ful selection  of  seed  in  the  field.  This  selection  should  be  made  before 


Fig.  4.  A seed  corn  rack, 
made  from  1x6  lumber  and 
plastering  lath. 


Fig.  5.  Another  satisfactory 
method  of  drying  seed  corn. 


the  first  killing  frost,  so  that  ears  which  have  matured  normally  can  be 
distinguished  from  those  that  have  ripened  prematurely  on  account  of  dis- 
ease. Only  mature  ears  borne  on  sound  shanks  and  on  stalks  which  still 
bear  green  leaves  should  be  selected.  It  has  been  found  that  kernels  with 
rough  indentation  are  more  frequently  diseased  than  kernels  of  smooth 
type.  Dull  and  discolored  kernels,  particularly  those  with  discolored  germs, 
are  often  diseased. 

Apparently  there  is  a great  deal  of  difference  between  plants  in  re- 
sistance to  disease.  It  will  probably  be  possible  during  the  next  few  years 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


47 


to  develop  resistant  strains  by  selection  or  by  the  crossing  of  inbred  strains. 
At  present,  however,  no  available  varieties  or  strains  are  known  to  be  re- 
sistant, and  the  best  procedure  for  the  corn  grower  to  follow  is  to  im- 
prove his  own  adapted  corn  in  disease  resistance  by  field  selection  and 
by  the  method  of  germination  testing  described  on  page  49. 

Testing  for  Germination.  The  germination  test  is  a valuable  aid  in 
detecting  dead  or  diseased  seed.  The  germinating  power  of  seed  ears  gath- 
ered before  the  first  killing  frost  and  properly  stored  may  be  relied  upon 
ordinarily  without  testing,  unless  the  ears  were  extremely  immature  when 
gathered.  When  the  germinating  power  of  such  seed  ears  is  doubtful,  a 
bulk  germination  test  may  be  run  by  taking  six  kernels  from  each  of  100 
ears  selected  at  random  and  determining  their  germination  in  the  usual 
way.  If  the  germination  of  these  kernels  is  found  to  be  less  than  90  per 
cent,  individual  ear  tests  should  be  run  to  detect  the  ears  low  in  germin- 
ative  power.  A special  germination  test  for  the  detection  of  diseased  ears 
as  well  as  ears  of  low  germination  has  been  devised  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.  It  will  probably  pay  to  use  this  test  even 
when  the  germinating  power  of  the  ears  tested  is  known  to  be  satisfactory. 
In  an  experiment  reported  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
a group  of  apparently  healthy  ears  were  separated  by  such  a germination 
test  into  diseased  and  disease-free  lots.  The  average  acre  yield  from  dis- 
ease-free ears  was  15  bushels  more  than  that  from  the  diseased  ears.  The 
special  germination  test  is  hardly  more  expensive  than  the  older  methods. 
It  is  described  on  page  49. 

CORN  IMPROVEMENT  BY  THE  FARMER 

It  is  possible  for  farmers  to  make  very  substantial  and  profitable  im- 
provement in  corn  by  simple,  inexpensive  methods.  The  increase  in  yield 
which  may  be  obtained  by  such  methods  cannot  be  stated,  though  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  there  are  few  strains  of  corn  now  being  grown  by  Missouri 
farmers  which  could  not  be  improved  to  some  extent  in  natural  yielding 
power  by  continuous  selection  of  the  right  sort  under  farm  conditions. 
The  features  of  the  plants  could  be  changed  in  the  desired  way,  the  time 
required  for  maturity  shortened  if  necessary,  the  proportion  of  weak  and 
diseased  stalks  reduced,  the  keeping  quality  of  the  grain  improved  and  good 
germinable  seed  obtained  in  every  season,  by  proper  selection  and  storage 
of  seed.  Actual  corn  breeding  is  not  usually  profitable  under  ordinary 
farm  conditions,  when  the  variety  is  already  a good  yielder.  This  is  true 
not  only  because  of  the  extra  expense  involved,  but  because  it  is  decidedly 
doubtful  under  farm  conditions  that  better  results  can  be  obtained  by  such 
methods  than  by  ordinary  selection. 

The  first  step  in  corn  improvement  is  to  obtain  seed  of  an  adapted 
and  productive  strain  of  a good  variety,  for  foundation  stock.  If  the  corn 
already  being  grown  on  the  farm  is  not  considered  suitable,  an  improved 
strain  should  be  obtained,  from  some  nearby  source  if  possible.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  obtain  seed  from  a distance,  it  is  better  to  go  east  or  west 
than  north,  and  better  to  go  north  than  south.  The  most  important  ele- 
ment in  adaptation  is  time  of  maturity,  and  corn  which  has  been  grown 


48  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


for  some  years  where  seasons  are  longer  will  be  found  too  late  for  best 
results. 

Seed  corn  should  be  selected  in  the  field  when  most  of  the  ears  have 
matured  and,  if  possible,  before  the  first  killing  frost.  If  the  first  killing 
frost  occurs  before  most  of  the  ears  have  matured,  the  seed  corn  should 
be  gathered  the  following  morning.  About  30  to  40  ears  should  be  selected 
for  each  acre  to  be  planted,  so  that  ears  found  diseased  or  otherwise  un- 
desirable may  be  eliminated  and  so  that  an  extra  supply  may  be  on  hand 
for  possible  replanting  and  for  reserve  stock  for  the  following  year  in  case 
of  an  early  freeze  or  a crop  failure. 

The  all-important  points  in  the  selection  of  seed  corn  are  yield,  good 
maturity  and  soundness.  These  should  not  be  sacrificed  for  any  other  fea- 
tures of  the  ear  or  plant.  Ears  should  be  selected  only  from  plants  pro- 
ducing well  and  growing  in  a full  stand  with  no  apparent  advantage  in 
growing  conditions.  In  selecting  for  yield,  large  ears  are  desirable,  but 
the  ear  which  is  large  and  heavy  because  of  late  maturity  should  be  avoid- 
ed. Freedom  from  disease  is  indicated  in  several  ways.  The  stalks  and 
leaves  of  undiseased  plants  usually  hold  some  of  their  color  for  some  time 
after  the  ears  have  ripened.  Broken  ear  shanks  and  leaning  and  broken 
stalks  are  indications  of  disease,  and  plants  showing  these  defects  should 
be  avoided  even  though  they  bear  ears  of  seemingly  good  quality.  Rela- 
tively short,  sturdy  stalks  bearing  the  ear  at  a convenient  height  and  at 
a declining  angle  are  desirable.  Ears  not  covered  to  the  tip  by  the  husks 
should  be  avoided  as  they  are  more  likely  to  be  injured  by  insects  and  dis- 
ease. Apparently  it  does  not  pay  to  study  the  features  of  the  ear  too  close- 
ly in  selecting  for  seed.  None  of  the  fancy  points  used  in  scoring  seed 
corn  have  been  shown  to  be  associated  with  yield.  Apparently,  ears  having 
a relatively  shallow  indentation  are  less  susceptible  to  disease  than  ears  of 
deeper  indentation. 

The  seed  ears  selected  should  invariably  be  stored  on  the  day  they  are 
gathered.  This  is  very  important,  for  their  germinating  power  may  be 
greatly  reduced  if  they  are  left  in  the  sack  or  piled  on  the  ground  even  for 
a day  or  two.  The  most  important  requirements  of  storage  are  dryness 
and  ventilation.  The  storage  place  should  also  be  fairly  warm,  but  if  arti- 
ficial heat  is  used,  the  seed  must  be  given  plenty  of  ventilation  to  carry 
off  excess  moisture,  or  injury  may  result.  The  great  necessity  in  storing 
seed  corn  is  to  dry  it  out  thoroughly  before  it  freezes  or  heats.  Seed 
ears  should  never  be  left  for  any  considerable  length  of  time  in  direct 
sunlight,  however.  Some  good  methods  of  storing  seed  are  shown  in 
Figures  3,  4 and  5.  When  the  ears  have  dried  out  thoroughly,  which  will 
usually  take  from  four  to  six  weeks,  they  can  be  stored  in  crates,  which 
should  be  lined  with  one-fourth  inch  wire  screen  for  protection  from  rats 
and  mice. 

In  the  late  winter  or  early  spring  the  ears  should  be  individually  test- 
ed for  germinating  power  and  freedom  from  disease.  If  the  corn  has 
been  properly  selected  and  stored,  there  is  little  danger  that  it  will  fail 
to  germinate  well,  but  the  various  rot  diseases,  which  can  be  recognized  in 
the  right  sort  of  germination  test,  are  so  injurious  that  it  will  pay  to  test 
all  seed  ears,  so  that  those  affected  by  such  diseases  may  be  thrown  out. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


49 


A special  rag-doll  germination  test,  for  the  detection  of  dead  and  diseased 
ears,  is  performed  as  follows: 

Lay  a strip  of  butchers’  wrapping  paper,  12  inches  wide  and  60  inches 
long,  on  a clean  surface,  and  on  top  of  this  lay  a moistened  strip  of  bleached 
or  unbleached  muslin,  12  inches  wide  and  54  inches  long,  so  that  about  three 
inches  of  paper  extends  beyond  each  end  of  the  cloth.  Now  place  eight 
representative  kernels  from  each  ear  in  a row  on  the  muslin,  germs  down 
and  tips  pointing  in  the  same  direction,  towards  one  side  of  the  muslin. 
Roll  the  paper  and  the  cloth  into  a doll  just  tightly  enough  to  hold  the 
kernels  in  place,  using  the  extra  three  inches  of  paper  at  one  end  for  a 
core,  and  fasten  at  each  end  with  a rubber  band  or  string.  Place  the  doll 
in  the  germinator  box  so  that  the  tips  of  the  kernels  point  downward,  and 


Fig.  6.  A rag-doll  germinator  for  the  detection  of  both  dead  and  diseased  kernels. 


on  the  upper  end  attach  a tag  indicating  the  numbers  of  the  ears  tested 
No  guiding  lines  or  ear  numbers  inside  the  doll  are  necessary  if  the  ears 
are  numbered  in  the  order  in  which  their  kernels  are  placed  in  the  doll. 
The  muslin  should  be  put  in  boiling  water  for  a few  minutes  before  it  is 
used  in  another  test. 

The  germinator  box  consists  of  an  outer  and  an  inner  box  with  saw- 
dust between,  as  illustrated  in  Figure  7.  A convenient  size  for  the  inner 
box  is  12x24x18  inches  inside.  Wire  cross  rods  three  inches  apart  are 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  box  to  hold  the  dolls  apart.  The  outer 
box  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  at  least  two  inches  of  space  for  a 
tight  sawdust  filling  around  the  sides  of  the  inner  box.  The  sawdust 
should  be  kept  moist,  and  holes  should  be  made  in  the  sides  of  the  inner 
box  to  allow  damp  air  to  enter  the  germination  chamber.  A three-inch 
layer  of  sawdust  in  the  bottom  of  the  inner  box  provides  a base  for  the 
dolls  to  rest  upon.  The  top  of  the  box  is  covered  with  wet  gunny  sacks 


50  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181 


while  the  test  is  in  progress.  The  dolls  should  be  sprinkled  thoroughly 
twice  a day  with  lukewarm  water,  but  they  need  not  be  soaked  in  water  at 
any  time.  After  seven  days  the  doll  is  taken  out  of  the  box  and  unrolled. 
The  percentage  of  germination  of  each  ear  is  determined  in  the  usual  way 
and  the  seedlings  are  then  examined  for  molding  or  rotting  of  the  roots. 
The  seedlings  which  have  rotted  stems  or  roots,  or  which  come  from  rot- 
ted kernels,  indicate  ears  infected  with  disease.  These  ears,  as  well  as 
ears  which  do  not  give  good  germination,  should  be  discarded.* 


Fig.  7.  Germinator  box  for  rag  doll  disease  germinators. 


SUMMARY 

1.  Variety  tests  of  corn  extending  through  a period  of  16  years,  from 
1905  through  1920,  are  reported.  Nearly  500  cooperative  tests  on  farms 
well  distributed  over  the  State,  and  tests  of  several  years  duration  on  the 
experiment  station  field  at  Columbia  and  on  each  of  eight  outlying  experi- 
ment fields,  are  included. 

2.  The  best  varieties  for  upland  soils  in  northern  Missouri  were  the 
medium  early  maturing  varieties,  Reid  Yellow  Dent  and  Learning.  Their 
advantage  in  yield  over  the  later  maturing  varieties,  such  as  Boone  County 
White,  St.  Charles  White,  and  Commercial  White,  was  greatest  in  north- 
western Missouri  and  least  in  northeastern  Missouri. 

3.  The  best  varieties  on  upland  soils  in  central  Missouri  were  Boone 

*A  germinator  of  the  table  type  for  the  detection  of  diseased  ears  has  also  been  de- 
vised. This  is  described  in  Farmers  Bulletin  1176,  in  which  practical  methods  for  the 
control  of  the  root,  stalk,  and  ear  rot  diseases  are  fully  discussed.  This  bulletin  may  be 
obtained  free  from  the  Division  of  Publications,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


Corn  Varieties  and  Their  Improvement 


51 


County  White,  St.  Charles  White,  and  Commercial  White.  Although  Com- 
mercial White  has  given  the  highest  yields  in  this  part  of  the  State,  Boone 
County  White  and  St.  Charles  White  are  to  be  preferred  because  of  their 
earlier  maturity  and  the  better  keeping  quality  of  their  stored  grain. 

4.  The  best  variety  for  upland  soils  in  southern  Missouri  -was  Com- 
mercial White.  In  the  lowlands  of  southeastern  Missouri  St.  Charles  White 
was  found  best  adapted. 

5.  The  best  variety  for  bottom  lands  both  in  northern  and  southern 
Missouri  was  Boone  County  White. 

6.  Commercial  White  was  the  best  variety  for  silage  at  Columbia,  the 
only  point  at  which  a direct  test  for  silage  was  made.  Other  good  varieties 
were  St.  Charles  White,  St.  Charles  Yellow,  and  Cartner. 

7.  On  account  of  the  wide  variation  between  strains  of  the  same  vari- 
ety, it  is  not  recommended  that  adapted  and  improved  strains  which  have 
proved  satisfactory  be  abandoned  for  another  variety  which  has  been  re- 
ported as  giving  higher  yields. 

8.  The  practical  value  of  various  methods  of  corn  improvement  is 
discussed  and  methods  of  corn  improvement  for  the  farm  are  briefly  stated. 
Continuous  selection  of  seed  corn  in  the  field  is  recommended  as  the  most 
practical  method  of  corn  improvement  on  the  farm. 

9.  Germination  testing  for  the  detection  of  disease  is  recommended 
even  when  the  germinating  ability  of  the  seed  is  unquestioned. 


A 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  182 


Thirty  Years  of  Field  Experiments 
With  Crop  Rotation,  Manure 
and  Fertilizers 


General  view  of  plots  on  Rotation  Experiment  Field  at  Columbia 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
APRIL,  1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

APRIL.  1921 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 
C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.2 
R.  M.  Smith  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedmann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  SiEvEking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

G.  W.  York,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  F.  Ahmann,  A.  B. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B .S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Barnard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  EdinGER,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale.  B.  S.  in  i\gr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Samuel  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

O.  C.  McBride, 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

1In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Ag 
2On  leave  of  absence 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  Gromer,  A.  M. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

Ben  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crtsler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 

R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S.,  Sercretary 

S.  B.  ShirkEy,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Director 
A.  A.  Jeffrey,  A.  B.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 

Miss  Bertha  Hite,1  Seed  Testing  Lab- 
oratory. 

riculture. 


Thirty  Years  of  Field  Experiments  With  Crop 
Rotation,  Manure  and  Fertilizers 

M.  F.  Miller  and  R.  R.  Hudelson. 


Long-  continued  experiments  are  necessary  in  order  to  determine  the  effects 
of  systems  of  crop  rotation  and  manuring  upon  the  soil.  Short  time  ex- 
periments mean  little  because  of  the  influence  of  seasonal  variations  and  be- 
cause of  the  necessity  of  securing  results  from  several  rounds  of  the  various 
rotations.  The  data  here  reported  include  the  results  of  30  years  of  experi- 
ments1 with  various  systems  of  cropping,  manuring,  and  fertilizing,  designed  to 
determine  not  only  the  effect  upon  crop  yields  but  also  upon  the  soil. 


THE  SOIL 

The  soil  of  the  field  on  which  these  experiments  have  been  conducted  may 
be  described  as  being  of  a dark,  brownish-gray  color  and  of  a silt  loam  tex- 
ture, 9 to  12  inches  deep,  grading  into  a grayish  subsurface  layer  4 to  6 inches 
thick.  Below  this  there  is  another  gradation  into  a brown,  heavy  clay  loam 
rather  impervious  in  character.  The  subsoil  is  a yellowish-gray,  silty  clay 
loam,  more  friable  than  the  layer  above  it.  The  surface  drainage  is  gen- 
erally good.  It  is  classed  as  Putnam  silt  loam  although  it  differs  slightly 
from  the  typical  areas  of  this  soil,  in  being  slightly  more  rolling  in  to- 
pography, slightly  deeper  and  somewhat  darker  in  color.  Also,  the  gray  silt 
layer  in  the  subsurface  soil  is  not  so  pronounced  and  the  tight  clay  loam 
layer  in  the  upper  subsoil  is  somewhat  less  impervious  than  in  the  typical  Put- 
nam silt  loam.  Plots  1-7,  23-26,  and  29-33  inclusive  are  subject  to  slight  ero- 
sion. The  soil  of  the  field  is,  however,  fairly  uniform  in  fertility. 


THE  PLAN  OF  THE  EXPERIMENTS 

The  Plots:  The  experiments  were  begun  in  1888,  the  original  plan  pro- 

viding for  39  tenth-acre  plots  separated  by  alley-ways  3 feet  wide.  In  1904, 
owing  to  a change  in  a street  on  the  north  side  of  the  field,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  shorten  one  range  of  plots  somewhat  and  eliminate  plot  8.  It  was 
considered  wise  to  shorten  the  plots  of  the  other  ranges  similarly  so  that 
all  plots  were  reduced  to  one-thirteenth  acre.  To  provide  wider  borders 
and  improve  the  plan  of  handling  they  were  further  reduced  to  one-four- 
teenth acre  in  1914. 


iThis  experiment  field  was  planned  by  J.  W.  Sanborn  who  was  director  of  the  Station  in 
1888  when  the  experiment  was  begun.  The  plots  were  laid  out  and  the  field  work  inaugurat- 
ed by  H.  J.  Waters  who  was  at  that  time  Assistant  Agriculturist.  Various  men  have  been 
in  charge  of  the  detailed  management  of  the  plots  at  different  times  since.  The  work  at 
this  time  is  being  handled  by  F.  L.  Duley.  R.  R.  Hudelson  has  done  most  of  the  work  in 
preparing  the  material  for  publication. 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Cropping  Plan:  The  original  plan  provided  for  the  following  systems 

of  cropping  and  soil  treatment: 


Continuous  Corn 

Untreated  Plot  17 

Manured  Plot  18 

Continuous  Oats 

Untreated  Plot  16 

Manured  Plot  15 

Continuous  Wheat 

Untreated  Plots  9,  29 

(29  not  included  in  calculations.) 

Manured  Plots  5,  10,  21,  24,  30,  36 

Fertilized  Plot  2 

Continuous  Clover 

Untreated  Plot  7 

(Changed  to  continuous  cowpeas  in  1909) 

Manured  Plot  6 

(Changed  to  continuous  cowpeas  1913) 

Continuous  Timothy 

Untreated  Plot  23 

Manured  Plot  22 

Tvl'o  Year  Rotation : Wheat,  Clover. 

Untreated  Plot  33 

Manured Plots  31,  32 

Three  Year  Rotation : Corn,  Wheat,  Clover. 

Untreated  Plot  27 

Manured  Plots  25,  26,  28 

Four  Year  Rotation : Corn,  Oats,  Wheat,  Clover. 

Untreated Plot  39 

Manured  Plots  34,  35,  37,  38 

Six  Year  Rotation : Corn,  Oats,  Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy. 

Untreated  Plot  13 

Manured Plots  1,  11,  12,  14,  19,  20 

Fertilized  Plot  3 

One-half  application  each  of  manure  and  ferti- 
lizer   Plot  4 


It  will  be  observed  that  there  were  from  two  to  six  duplications  of  the 
manured  plots  in  each  rotation  although  for  the  untreated  rotated  plots,  the 
continuously  cropped  plots  and  the  fertilized  plots  no  duplicates  were  provided. 
Further  the  plots  were  not  arranged  in  series  according  to  rotations  and  their 
irregular  distribution  over  the  field  has  made  them  very  difficult  to  handle 
efficiently  since  it  has  been  necessary  to  handle  each  plot  separately.  Lastly 
the  failure  to  provide  a plot  for  each  crop  each  year  in  the  various  ro- 
tations has  made  it  impossible  to  eliminate  the  seasonal  factor.  It  is  there- 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations 


■The  three  year  rotation  t>f  corn,  wheat  and  clover.  Upper  row  of  pictures  shows  growth  on  plots  receiving  manure;  lower  row  shows  growth 

without  manure. 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


fore,  only  after  a long  period  of  years  has  elapsed  that  the  results  can  be  sum- 
marized with  any  assurance  of  accuracy,  even  30  years  being  too  short  a time 
to  eliminate  this  source  of  error.  The  necessity  for  the  duplication  of  plots 
was  not  so  clearly  recognized  in  the  early  days  of  experimental  work  in  agri- 
culture, when  these  plots  were  laid  out. 

In  1914  at  the  end  of  a quarter  century  the  plan  of  certain  of  the  dupli- 
cate manured  plots  was  changed  to  include  more  modern  methods  of  applying 
manure,  lime  and  iertilizer.  One  plot  of  each  treatment  was  retained,  how- 
ever, and  only  the  records  from  these  unchanged  plots  are  included  in  the 
averages  for  the  last  five  years  of  the  30-year  period. 

PLOT  TREATMENT 

The  original  plan  of  manured  plots  provided  for  an  application  of  6 tons 
per  acre  annually.  The  same  applications  per  plot  were  continued  after  1904 
when  the  plots  were  reduced  in  size,  thus  making  the  rate,  from  1904  to  1913, 
7.8  tons  per  acre.  After  1913  the  rate  was  restored  to  6 tons  per  acre.  On 
one  plot,  No.  1,  the  original  plan  provided  for  an  application  of  7 tons  per 
acre,  the  acre-application  on  this  plot  being  9.1  tons  after  1904.  Such  appli- 
cations of  manure  are  much  larger  than  is  practical  on  the  cultivated  land  of 
the  average  farm,  and  the  effects  upon  the  soil  and  crop  are  therefore  intensi- 
fied. Considerable  difficulty  has  been  experienced  from  the  use  of  such  large 
amounts  of  manure  in  stimulating  weed  growth  on  certain  plots  and  in  causing 
wheat  and  oats  to  lodge,  often  smothering  out  grass  and  clover  crops  sown 
with  them. 

The  fertilizer  treatments  on  plots  2,  3 and  4 were  based  on  the  amounts 
of  plant  food  removed  in  maximum  crops.  Plot  2 which  was  grown  to  wheat 
continuously  received  sufficient  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium  to  equal 
the  amounts  of  these  elements  contained  in  a 40-bushel  wheat  crop  and  the 
accompanying  straw. 

Plot  3 which  was  devoted  to  a 6-year  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover, 
timothy  and  timothy  received  an  application  of  fertilizer  carrying  the  amounts 
of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  found  in  maximum  yields  of  these  re- 
spective crops,  that  is,  corn  80  bushels  with  2.4  tons  stover,  oats  60  bushels 
with  1.5  tons  straw,  wheat  40  bushels  with  2 tons  straw,  and  hay  crops  3 tons. 

Plot  4 which  had  the  same  rotation  as  plot  3 received  one-half  the  usual 
application  of  manure  and  one-half  the  amount  of  fertilizer  used  on  plot  3. 

Standard  analyses  showing  crop  composition  have  been  used  in  determin- 
ing the  fertilizer  applications.  Sodium  nitrate  has  been  used  throughout  as  a 
nitrogen  carrier,  acid  phosphate1  as  phosphorus  carrier  and  muriate  of  potash 
as  a carrier  of  potassium.  An  interesting  thing  about  the  composition  of 
these  fertilizer  applications  based  on  the  composition  of  the  crop  is  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  differ  from  present  day  fertilizers,  especially  in  the  nitro- 
gen content.  The  following  table  gives  the  amounts  of  the  different  fertilizers 
which  have  been  applied  to  each  crop  since  1915.  Previous  to  that  time  the 
amount  was  figured  annually  from  the  best  available  crop  analyses  using  as  a 
basis  the  yields  given  in  this  table.  Such  fertilizer  applications  are  of  course 

'An  exception  to  the  above  was  made  in  the  use  of  dissolved  bone  black  instead  of  acid  phosphate 
from  1889  to  1899  and  bone  meal  1908  and  1909. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations 


/ 


Table  1. — Amounts  of  Fertilizer  Applied  in  a 6- Year  Rotation,  also  with 

Continuous  Wheat. 


Pounds 

of  Fertilizer  Per  Acre 

ASSUMED  YIELD 

Sodium 

Acid 

Muriate  of 

Nitrate 

Phosphate’ 

Potash 

Corn,  80  bu.  plus  2.4  tons  stover 

764 

301 

136 

Oats,  60  bu.  plus  1.5  tons  straw 

375 

157 

98 

Wheat,  40  bu.  plus  2 tons  straw 

495 

209 

111 

Clover,  3 tons  hay 

774 

245 

216 

Timothy,  3 tons  hay  (2  years) 

464 

147 

170 

'An  exception  to  the  above  was  made  in  the  use  of  dissolved  bone  black  instead  of  acid 
phosphate  from  1889  to  1899  and  bone  meal  1908  and  1909. 


not  economical.  The  value  of  the  experiment  lies  in  the  effect  they  have  upon 
the  maintenance  of  productivity  and  upon  the  physical  and  chemical  compo- 
sition of  the  soil. 


METHODS  OF  CALCULATION 

In  the  following  tables  all  plots  receiving  a given  treatment  are  averaged 
together.  In  a few  cases  records  were  omitted  by  accident  chiefly  through 
changes  of  administration  in  the  early  days  when  help  was  insufficient.  All 
such  cases  are  marked  “omitted”  in  the  detailed  tables  which  appear  in  the 
appendix  of  this  bulletin. 

Where  it  was  considered  desirable  to  reduce  all  records  to  a common 
summary,  it  was  necessary  to  choose  a common  denominator,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  total  crop  value  was  chosen.  This  necessitated  the  selection  of  a 
set  of  prices  and  it  was  considered  best  to  use  the  December  first  farm  price 
recorded  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  for  the  30 
years,  1889  to  1918,  covered  by  the  field  experiments.  These  prices  are  lower 
than  those  prevailing  at  present.  They  are : Corn  52  cents  a bushel,  oats  35 
cents,  wheat  86  cents  and  hay  $8.95  a ton.  No  such  record  of  prices  is  available 
for  straw  or  corn  fodder  and  the  following  prices  were  considered  fair : Wheat 
straw  $2.50,  oat  straw  $3.00  and  corn  stover  $2.00  per  ton. 

In  computing  costs  of  treatment  manure  was  assumed  to  cost  $1.00  a ton 
applied  to  the  land  and  in  computing  the  cost  of  fertilizers  the  pre-war  prices 
of  20  cents  a pound  for  nitrogen,  6 cents  a pound  for  available  phosphoric 
acid  and  6 cents  a pound  for  available  potash  were  used.  These  were  the 
prices  used  by  the  state  fertilizer  inspection  service  1908  to  1911.  All  compu- 
tations are  on  the  basis  of  one  acre. 

ROTATIONS 

The  chief  problem  which  this  experiment  was  designed  to  solve  is  the  de- 
termination of  comparative  values  of  different  rotations  when  continued 
through  a period  of  years.  Table  2 gives  in  compact  form  the  information 
bearing  on  this  question.  It  is  evident  that  the  longer  the  period  between 
corn  crops  the  greater  is  the  yield,  varying  from  20.9  bushels  with  corn  every 
year  to  32.6  bushels  in  a three-year  rotation,  38.5  bushels  in  a four-year  rota- 
tion and  41.5  bushels  in  a six-year  rotation.  This  is  to  be  expected  since  corn 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


is  the  only  cultivated  crop  and  hence  the  most  exhaustive  one  in  the  series. 
A closer  study  of  all  the  crops,  however,  seems  to  indicate  that  the  four-year 
rotation  gave  best  general  results  since  it  is  a little  better  on  oats,  wheat  and 
clover  than  the  six-year  rotation.  Reducing  to  average  values  per  acre  the 
last  column  of  the  table  bears  out  this  observation. 


Table  2. — Average  Yields  of  Crops  without  Manure  or  Fertilizer. 
(30  Year  Average  Expressed  in  Yield  per  Acre.) 


Cropping  System 

Corn 

Os 

ts 

Wheat 

Clov- 

er 

Timo-  Average 
thy  Annual 

Grain 

bu. 

, Stove: 
! lbs. 

Grain 

bu. 

Straw 

lbs. 

Grain 

bu. 

Straw 

lbs. 

Hay 

lbs. 

Value 

Hay  of 

lbs.  Crop 

6 Year  rotation 

41.5 

1899 

27.2 

1720 

20.1 

1914 

2173 

2446  $14.48 

4 Year  rotation 

38.5 

2940 

27.9 

1600 

23.6 

3314 

2615 

17  82 

3 Y ear  rotation 

32.6 

2478 



14.4 

1717 

1918 

14  18 

2 Year  rotation 

18.4 

2405 

2974 

16  07 

Corn  continuouslv 

20.9 

2052 

12  92 

Oats  continuously 

16.9 

1C99 

7 56 

Wheat  continuously 

9.5 

1241 

9.72 

Clover  continuously 

2430 

10  87 

Timothy  continuously 



2577  11.53 

In  all  cases,  growing  the  same  crop  continuously  reduced  the  average  value 
of  the  crop,  which  is  probably  due  to  several  causes,  among  which  is  the 
favoring  of  enemies  of  a specific  crop  by  continuing  that  crop  on  the  same 


Fig.  3. — Continuous  timothy  heavily  top-dressed  with  manure  on  left  and  without 
treatment  on  right.  The  manure  has  approximately  doubled  the  yield  and  greatly  lessened 
the  number  of  weeds,  particularly  during  recent  years  when  the  weakened  condition  of 
the  untreated  plot  has  allowed  many  weeds  to  come  in. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  W ith  Crop  Rotations 


y 


field  year  after  year.  Insect  enemies,  weeds  and  diseases  are  all  favored  by 
this  practice.  All  the  grain  crops  gave  approximately  twice  the  yield  under 
rotation  that  they  gave  under  continuous  cropping  and  of  course  there  is 
much  more  profit  in  growing  a given  amount  of  produce  in  one  year  than  in 
two,  since  the  seed,  interest,  tax  and  labor  costs  are  thus  cut  in  half.  On  the 
other  hand  extending  the  rotation  too  long  and  putting  the  money  crops  too 
far  apart  may  reduce  profits. 

Table  3 gives  a summary  of  the  effects  of  rotation  and  continuous  crop- 
ping where  all  plots  have  been  heavily  manured  annually.  In  this  case  enough 
fertility  is  supplied  so  that  the  factor  of  soil  exhaustion  is  practically  eliminated, 
but  even  under  these  conditions  rotation  gives  better  yields  than  a one-crop 
system.  As  to  choice  of  rotations  this  table  is  not  so  conclusive.  Apparently 


Table  3. — Average  Yields  of  Crops  Receiving  Annual  Applications  of  Manure. 

(30  Year  Average  Expressed  in  Yield  per  Acre.) 


Cropping  System 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Clov- 

er 

Timo 

thy 

Average 

Annual 

Value 

of 

Crop 

Grain 

bu. 

Stover 

lbs. 

Grain 

bu. 

Straw 

lbs. 

Grain 

bu. 

Straw 

lbs. 

Hay 

lbs. 

Hay 

lbs. 

6 Year  rotation 

44.0 

2987 

25.7 

1683 

26.5 

3680 

3981 

4335 

$20.23 

4 Year  rotation 

47.7 

3181 

28.9 

1980 

24.0 

3427 

4564 

21.60 

3 Year  rotation  . 

43.4 

3183 

25.6 

3342 

3352 

22.32 

2 Year  rotation 

23.5 

3139 

4777 

22.75 

Corn  continuously 

34.9 

2889 

21.04 

Oats  continuously 

27.3 

1928 

12.45 

Wheat  continuously 

18.1 

2456 

18.64 

Clover  continuously 

3257 

14.58 

Timothy  continuously 

4902 

21.94 

any  system  which  discourages  crop  enemies  and  preserves  a good  tilth  is  satis- 
factory where  the  fertility  is  maintained  by  other  means.  It  is  then  a question 
of  introducing  the  most  valuable  crops  and  eliminating  the  crops  of  little  value 
giving  consideration  to  the  question  of  labor  distribution  and  the  feeds  need- 
ed. Maintaining  fertility  by  means  of  manure  presupposes  a livestock  system 
of  farming. 

Table  4 summarizes  the  results  from  using  rotation  and  manure  in  corn 
production.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  other  crop  is  so  good  for  measuring  these 
soil  differences  since  corn  is  so  universally  grown  in  this  section  and  it  is  the 
crop  before  which  most  of  the  manure  is  applied.  From  this  table  it  is  evi- 
dent that  in  cases  where  the  soil  is  not  maintained  by  manuring,  the  corn  yield 

Table  4 — Average  Yields  of  Corn  Obtained  under  Different  Cropping  Sys- 
tems WITH  AND  WITHOUT  MANURE,  30  YEAR  AVERAGE. 

Cropping  System  Unmanured  Manured 


Corn  Continuously 

3 Yr.  Rotation 

4 Yr.  Rotation  . . . 
6 Yr.  Rotation  . . 


20.9  bu. 
32.6  bu. 

38.5  bu. 

41.5  bu. 


34.9  bu. 
43.4  bu. 
47.7  bu. 
44.0  bu. 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


is  increased  by  lengthening  the  period  between  corn  crops  up  to  at  least  five 
years;  where  manure  is  used  liberally  the  six-year  rotation  is  no  more  ef- 
fective than  the  four-year  rotation,  but  as  there  is  no  apparent  reason  for 
the  six-year  rotation  falling  below  the  shorter  one,  this  result  seems  due  to 
accidental  variation  in  the  plots  or  seasons  averaged. 

USE  OF  MANURE 

It  should  be  remembered  in  studying  the  effects  of  manure  in  these  experi- 
ments that  the  amounts  applied  were  greater  than  is  feasible  in  any  practical 
system  of  farming  with  the  possible  exception  of  intensive  trucking.  The 
comparative  effects  on  different  crops  would  probably  remain  the  same  with 
lighter  applications,  however,  since  the  results  agree  in  general  with  those 
from  other  experiment  fields  of  the  Experiment  Station  where  practical  appli- 
cations have  been  made.  It  was  often  necessary  to  haul  manure  from  livery 
stables  in  town  and  large  amounts  of  weed  seed  were  sometimes  introduced. 
Clean  cultivation  reduced  their  damage  to  corn  and  they  did  not  gain  much  of 
a foothold  in  an  established  stand  of  timothy.  The  excessive  applications  of 
manure  often  caused  lodging  of  the  wheat  and  oats  crops  and  injured  the 
clover  following,  both  through  smothering  and  through  the  introduction  of 
weed  seeds. 

Table  5 shows  the  high  value  of  manure  on  corn,  wheat  and  timothy.  From 
this  table  it  is  evident  that  manure  is  not  so  good  on  continuous  clover.  Much 


Table  5. — Average  Annual  Yields  of  Single  Cropped  Plots  Manured  and 
Unmanured,  30-Year  Average. 


CROP 

Average  Annual  Yield 

Average 
Increase 
from  Use  of 
Manure 

Manured 

Unmanured 

Corn 

34.9  bu. 

20.9  bu. 

14.0  bu. 

Oats 

27.3  bu. 

16.9  bu. 

10.4  bu. 

Wheat 

18.1  bu. 

9.5  bu. 

8.6  bu. 

Clover 

3257  lbs. 

2430  lbs. 

827  lbs. 

Timothy 

4902  lbs 

2577  lbs. 

2325  lbs. 

of  this  is  due  to  weed  trouble  and  the  difficulty  of  growing  clover  continu- 
ously. Clover  often  gives  excellent  returns  for  manure  where  the  manure  is 
applied  to  a preceding  crop  in  the  rotation,  thus  giving  a chance  to  germinate 
and  kill  the  weeds,  or  where  the  young  clover  is  given  a light  top  dressing. 
Oats  is  a poor  crop  on  which  to  use  manure.  The  increase  in  bushels  of  oats  per 
acre  is  greater  than  the  increase  in  wheat,  but  the  lower  price  per  bushel  of 
oats  makes  the  return  smaller.  Lodging  was  particularly  bad  on  the  manured 
oats  plots. 

In  Table  6 the  effects  of  manuring  have  been  reduced  to  terms  of  money 
value.  Timothy,  wheat  and  corn  show  the  largest  crop  values  from  the  use 
of  manure  and  they  rank  in  the  order  named.  This  relative  value  is  some- 
what dependent  on  the  crop  prices  selected,  however,  and  the  relatively  high 
value  returned  by  wheat  is  chiefly  due  to  its  greater  value  per  bushel.  The 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  11 


Leqend  Corn  V///\  Oats  ll  1 1 1 1 Wheat  V//A  Clover  1-  ■ I Timothy 

Fig.  4. — Total  weight  of  crop  produced  on  an  acre  in  six  years  with  continuous  cropping 
and  with  different  rotations  (30-year  average). 


soil  of  Rotation  Field  is  especially  well  adapted  to  timothy  and  it  is  less 
hampered  by  seasonal  and  soil  limitations  than  the  other  crops.  In  these  ex- 
periments it  was  very  noticeable  that  a stand  of  timothy  was  maintained  for 
longer  periods  where  the  soil  was  manured.  On  the  continuous  timothy  plots 
the  timothy  on  the  unmanured  plot  often  gave  way  to  wild  grasses  and  weeds 
and  had  to  be  reseeded  at  frequent  intervals  particularly  during  recent  years, 
while  the  manured  plot  retained  a clean,  vigorous  stand  of  timothy  almost  in- 
definitely. It  was  plowed  up  only  for  the  purpose  of  treating  the  two  plots 
alike  when  it  became  necessary  to  reseed  the  unmanured  plot.  A top  dress- 
ing of  manure  on  timothy  is  highly  beneficial. 


Table  6. — Average  Annual  Value  of  Produce  on  Manured  and  Unmanured 
Plots  for  a 30- Year  Period. 


Cropping  System 

Average  Annual  Value 

Average 
Annual 
Increase  for 
Manure 

Manured 

Unmanured 

Corn  continuously 

$21.04 

$12.92 

$8.12 

Oats  continuously 

12.45 

7.56 

4.89 

Wheat  continuously 

18.64 

9.72 

8.92 

Clover  continuously 

14.58 

10.87 

3.71 

Timothy  continuously 

21.94 

11.53 

10.41 

6- Y ear  rotation 

20.23 

14.48 

5.75 

4- Year  rotation 

21.60 

17.82 

3.78 

3- Year  rotation 

22.32 

14.18 

8.14 

2-Year  rotation 

22.75 

16.07 

6.68 

12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Table  7 indicates  that  the  three-year  rotation  is  a little  less  effective  and 
the  longer  rotations  more  effective  than  heavy  manuring  in  maintaining  corn 
and  wheat  yields  over  a period  of  thirty  years.  Judging  from  the  soil  analysis 
it  is  evident,  however,  that  manure  is  more  effective  in  keeping  up  the  soil  than 
is  rotation.  In  still  longer  periods  than  thirty  years,  therefore,  rotation  may 
not  be  so  effective.  A combination  of  rotation  and  manure  is  best.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  rotation  alone  cannot  maintain  fertility  since  no  combination  of  crops 
can  put  other  fertility  elements  than  nitrogen  back  into  the  soil.  Proper  use  of 
a rotation  may  put  nitrogen  back  through  legumes  if  only  the  seed  be  harvested, 
and  it  may  also  reduce  the  amount  of  other  elements  removed,  but  so  long  as 
crops  are  sold  some  fertility  is  lost  and  the  amount  in  any  soil  is  definitely 
limited. 


Table  7 — Comparative  Effectiveness  of  Rotations  and  Manure  in  Main- 
taining Yields  of  Corn  and  Wheat. 


30  Year 

Average  Yield 

Crop 

Single  Cropping 

Rotation  without 

Manure 

Without 

With 

3 yr 

4 yr. 

6 yr. 

Manure 

Manure 

Corn  

20.9 

34.9 

32.6 

38.5 

41.4 

Wheat  

9.5 

18.1 

14.4 

23.6 

20.1 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZER  VERSUS  MANURE  IN  MAINTAIN- 
ING CROP  YIELDS 

Commercial  fertilizers  have  come  into  common  use  very  rapidly  in 
Missouri.  This  has  led  to  many  questions  about  their  value  when  used 
for  a period  of  years,  and  the  possibility  that  the  continued  use  of  fertil- 
izers might  have  a harmful  effect  upon  the  soil.  These  30-year-old  ex- 
periments with  fertilizers  have  therefore  gained  much  in  interest  and  value. 
Unfortunately  only  three  plots  receiving  fertilizer  were  included  in  this 
experiment. 

There  is  one  plot  of  continuous  wheat  with  enough  fertilizer  to  replace 
all  the  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium  in  40  bushels  of  wheat  and  2 
tons  of  straw,  one  with  a 6-year  rotation  on  which  enough  fertilizer  is 
applied  to  replace  these  elements  of  plant  food  in  maximum  crops,  and  one 
plot  with  6-year  rotation  on  which  half  this  amount  of  fertilizer  is  applied 
together  with  3 tons  of  manure,  which  is  half  the  amount  of  manure  ap- 
plied on  the  manured  plots  of  this  experiment.  These  are  very  heavy  ap- 
plications, too  expensive  for  practical  use  in  general  farming  in  Missouri, 
although  no  greater  than  are  commonly  used  in  trucking,  potato  growing, 
cotton  farming  or  other  types  of  intensive  agriculture.  Table  1 gives  the 
rates  of  application  of  these  fertilizers. 

The  materials  were  applied  by  carefully  mixing  them  together  and 
drilling  or  broadcasting  either  before  the  crop  or  as  a top  dressing  on  the 
crop.  These  large  amounts  of  fertilizer  sometimes  interfered  with  germ- 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  13 


ination  when  drilled  in  with  the  seed  in  case  of  wheat  and  two  methods  of 
avoiding  this  difficulty  were  tried  with  success.  One  method  was  to  drill 
the  fertilizer  a few  days  before  drilling  the  crop  and  the  other  was  to 
broadcast  the  fertilizer  as  a top  dressing  in  the  spring.  Drilling  ahead  of 
the  crop  has  the  advantage  of  furnishing  an  abundance  of  plant  food  to 
promote  vigorous  growth  when  the  crop  is  getting  a start  and  the  fer- 
tilizer is  not  likely  to  interfere  seriously  with  germination  since  fertilizer 
and  seed  are  in  different  drill  furrows. 


Table  8 gives  the  crop  yields  on  the  plots  receiving  commercial  fertilizer 
in  comparison  with  yields  on  untreated  and  manured  plots. 

From  Table  8 it  may  be  seen  that  fertilizers  have  kept  up  the  yields 
as  well  as  manure  when  averaged  for  30  years.  Corn  and  the  hay  crops 
are  better  with  manure,  but  wheat,'  and  oats;  are  better  with  fertilizer. 
In  fact  oats  yielded  less  with  manure  than  without,  which  can  only  be 
explained  in  the  increased  lodging  of  oats  where  manure  was  applied  so 
heavily. 

In  general,  this  relative  response  of  the  different  crops  to  manure  and 
fertilizer  agrees  with  numerous  other  experiments  of  the  Missouri  Ex- 
periment Station.  The1  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station  in  England  and 
the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  in  this  country  have  also  demon- 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Table  8. — Fertilized  and  Manured  Plots  in  Comparison.  Yields  for  30  Years 
under  Single  Cropping  and  6-Year  Rotation  Systems. 


Yields 


uroppmg  system 

Untreated 

Manured 

Complete 

Fertilizer 

Manure 
H Fertilizer 

Wheat  continuously 

9 5 bu. 

18.1  bu. 

18.7  bu. 

Six-Year  rotation 

Corn 

41.5  bu. 

44.0  bu. 

41.6  bu. 

36.8  bu. 

Oats 

27.2  bu. 

25.7  bu. 

39.1  bu. 

37.6  bu. 

Wheat 

20.1  bu. 

26.5  bu. 

30.0  bu. 

30.5  bu. 

Clover 

2173  lbs. 

3981  lbs. 

3636  lbs. 

3580  lbs. 

Timothy  (average  2 years) 

2446  lbs. 

4335  lbs. 

3810  lbs. 

3652  lbs. 

strated  the  possibility  of  maintaining  crop  yields  for  long  periods  of  time 
by  the  use  of  heavy  applications  of  chemical  fertilizers  as  readily  as  by  the 
use  of  farm  manure.  The  comparative  effects  of  manure  and  fertilizers  on 
wheat  have  been  observed  many  times  on  the  experiment  fields  of  Mis- 
souri, as  well  as  those  of  other  states.  Wheat  when  manured  makes  a 
good  growth  of  straw  but  when  it  begins  to  head  out  is  usually  spotted 
and  ripens  unevenly,  while  wheat  fertilized  with  a material  high  in  avail- 
able phosphate  usually  matures  evenly,  with  a very  uniform  appearance, 
due  to  the  uniformity  in  height,  size  of  heads  and  color.  Wheat  fertil- 
ized with  a phosphatic  fertilizer  almost  invariably  matures  a few  days 
earlier  than  unfertilized  or  manured  wheat. 

An  interesting  observation  in  case  of  the  plots  receiving  fertilizer  only, 
even  the  one  cropped  continuously  to  wheat,  is  that  the  soil  is  not  ap- 


Fig.  6. — Average  yield  of  wheat  on  equal  areas.  From  left  to  right  the  average 
yields  in  bushels  per  acre  are  as  follows:  Continuous  wheat  without  treatment,  9.5;  con- 

tinuous wheat  with  manure,  18.1;  continuous  wheat  with  fertilizers,  18.7;  wheat  in  six 
year  rotation  with  manure,  26.5;  wheat  in  six  year  rotation  with  fertilizers,  30.0. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  15 


preciably  more  compact  than  that  of  similarly  cropped  plots  without  treat- 
ment. It  might  be  expected  that  the  large  quantities  of  sodium  nitrate  ap- 
plied would  tend  to  puddle  the  soil  to  a certain  extent  but  such  a condi- 
tion has  not  been  observed. 

A general  summary  reduced  to  values,  is  shown  in  Table  9.  The  figures 
for  cost  of  production  are  taken  from  Missouri  Bulletin  No.  125  which 
covers  the  period  preceding  the  war.  They  do  not  take  into  account  any 
extra  expense  in  harvesting  and  marketing  the  crop  increases  from  soil 
treatment.  Probably  the  most  important  point  shown  by  this  table  is  that 
rotations,  in  general,  bring  greater  returns  than  single  cropping.  It  is  evi- 


Table  9. — Annual  Net  Return  per  Acre  with  Costs,  Averaged  for  30  Years. 


Crop  and  Treatment 

Average 

Annual 

Value 

Cost  of 
Production 

Cost  of 
Manure  or 
Fertilizer 

Total  Cost 

Net  Gain 

6-Year  rotation 

No  treatment 

6-Year  rotaton 

$14.48 

$10.83 

$10.83 

$3.65 

Manured 

6- Year  rotation 

20.23 

10.83 

$6.60 

17.43 

2.80 

Complete  fertilizer 

6-Year  rotation 

20.46 

10.83 

21.15 

31.98 

—11.52 

manure;  fertilizer  . 

4- Year  rotation 

19.69 

10.83 

13.88 

24.71 

— 5.02 

No  treatment 

17.82 

11.50 

11.50 

6.32 

4-Year  rotation 

Manured 

3-Year  rotation 

21.60 

11.50 

6.60 

18.10 

3.50 

No  treatment 

3-Year  rotation, 

14.18 

11.83 

11.83 

2.35 

Manured 

2-Year  rotation, 

22.32 

11.83 

6.60 

18.43 

3.89 

No  treatment 

2-Year  rotation, 

16.07 

11.00 

11.00 

5.07 

Manured 

Corn  continuously, 

22.75 

11.00 

6.60 

17.60 

5.15 

No  treatment 

Corn  continuously. 

12.92 

13.50 

13.50 

— .58 

Manured 

Oats  continuously. 

21.04 

13.50 

6.60 

20.10 

.94 

No  treatment.’ 

Oats  continuously, 

7.56 

10.50 

10.50 

— 2.94 

Manured 

Wheat  continuously, 

12.45 

10.50 

6.60 

17.10 

— 4.65 

No  treatment 

Wheat  continuously, 

9.72 

12.50 

12.50 

— 2.78 

Manured 

Wheat  continuously. 

18.64 

12.50 

6.60 

19.10 

— .46 

Complete  fertilizer 

Clover  continuously, 

19.15 

12.50 

18.40 

30.90 

—11.75 

No  treatment 

Clover  continuously, 

10  ,87 

9.50 

9.50 

1.37 

Manured 

Timothy  continuously, 

14.58 

9.50 

6.60 

16.10 

— 1.52 

No  treatment 

Timothy  continuously. 

11.53 

9.50 

9.50 

2.03 

Manured 

21.94 

9.50 

6.60 

16.10 

5.84  • 

16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


dent  also  that  both  manure  and  fertilizer  were  used  in  too  large  quantities 
to  pay.  For  general  farm  crops  the  cost  of  manure  and  fertilizer  must  be 
kept  down  to  correspond  with  the  value  of  the  product.  Heavy  applica- 
tions increase  the  gross  return  per  acre,  but  in  general  the  return  per 
unit  of  fertilizer  is  greater  as  the  quantity  of  fertilizer  per  acre  is  reduced. 
Experience  and  judgment  must  determine  that  amount  of  manure  or  fer- 
tilizer which  in  normal  seasons  proves  best  adapted  to  the  particular  set 
of  conditions  under  which  a given  farm  is  operated. 

It  is  evident  that  these  heavy  applications  of  chemicals  were  not  pro- 
fitable under  the  existing  conditions.  Manure  was  better  even  though  it 
was  used  in  very  large  quantities.  The  use  of  half  manure  and  half  fer- 
tilizer was  better  than  fertilizer  alone.  It  is  evident  that  the  chief  source 
of  financial  loss  in  this  fertilizer  is  the  high  cost  of  so  much  nitrogen. 
The  general  farmer  must  get  most  of  his  nitrogen  from  cheaper  sources 
than  commercial  fertilizer.  Legumes  must  be  used  increasingly  and  con- 
stantly if  yields  are  to  be  kept  up  economically.  Losses  of  nitrogen  must 
be  constantly  watched  and  prevented,  especially  in  the  liquid  manure  which 
contains  almost  half  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  manure.  The  potash  applied 
to  these  fertilized  plots  was  also  excessive.  Potash  is  abundant  in  this 
soil  and  needs  only  to  be  made  available.  The  phosphates  used  were  not  so 
excessive  and  these  quantities,  which  varied  from  150  to  300  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  per  acre,  have  often  proved  profitable  when  used  alone  or  in 
connection  with  small  amounts  of  nitrogen  and  of  potassium.  In  fact 
150  to  200  pounds  is  the  rate  commonly  used  on  the  experiment  fields  of 
the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  and  recommended  to  Missouri  farmers. 
Three  hundred  pounds  is  the  maximum  ever  recommended  for  field  crops. 
Climatic  and  soil  conditions  effectively  limit  the  amounts  of  fertilizer  that 
can  economically  be  applied  to  general  field  crops  in  Missouri. 

Maintenance  of  Crop  Yields.  Relative  Yields  of  Crops  by  Five-Year 
Periods:  Figures  7 and  8 show  diagramatically  the  yield  in  total  weight  of 
dry  matter  under  the  different  cropping  systems  and  treatments  used  on 
Rotation  Field  when  averaged  by  five-year  periods  In  the  lower  half  of 
the  chart  the  length  of  the  black  or  cross-hatched  blocks  is  proportional  to 
the  yield  of  crops.  The  curves  in  the  upper  half  of  the  chart  show  the 
trend  of  the  yields.  They  are  parallel  to  the  tops  of  the  cross-hatched  blocks 
below.  A study  of  these  charts  will  show  whether  or  not  the  yield  is  being 
maintained  under  each  treatment. 

Seasonal  variation  complicates  these  records  leaving  them  somewhat 
indefinite  in  many  instances  but  the  following  observations  seem  justified. 

The  yield  was  unmistakably  increased  where  the  three  and  four-year 
rotations  were  used  and  the  land  manured.  The  curve  seems  inclined  up- 
ward also  where  the  two-year  rotation  is  manured,  but  the  effect  is  pro- 
duced largely  by  unusually  favorable  conditions  during  the  last  five  years. 

Where  the  six-year  rotation  is  used  with  manure,  fertilizer,  or  half 
manure  and  half  fertilizer  the  curve  is  approximately  level,  indicating  main- 
tenance but  no  increase.  Considering  the  ability  of  continuous  timothy  to 
maintain  a rather  high  level  of  nitrogen  and  organic  matter  there  is  no 
apparent  explanation  for  the  seeming  inferiority  of  the  six-year  compared 
with  shorter  rotations  in  maintaining  crop  yields. 

The  curve  is  also  nearly  level  for  the  two,  three,  and  four-year  rota- 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  17 


tions  without  manure.  It  is  likely  that  somewhat  improved  methods  of 
cultivation  and  management  have  balanced  any  downward  tendency  in 
yield  on  these  plots.  Later  records  should  show  whether  or  not  there  is  actual 
soil  maintenance. 

The  yield  has  apparently  decreased  in  the  case  of  all  continuous  crops 
without  manure  or  fertilizer  although  the  downward  tendency  is  not  so 
marked  with  continuous  oats.  It  is  most  conclusive  for  corn  and  timothy. 


Fig.  7. — Yields  in  total  weight  of  dry  matter  under  different  cropping  systems  and  treat- 
ments by  five-year  periods. 


The  oats  crop  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  in  Central 
Missouri  so  that  the  yields  average  low.  There  is,  therefore,  less  tendency  to 
soil  exhaustion.  With  continuous  corn  and  continuous  timothy  the  yields 
have  run  down  even  where  manured.  The  one  exception  to  this  is  the  last 
period  with  corn  when  exceptionally  favorable  conditions  have  apparently 
brought  the  yield  up  again. 

Although  the  30-year  average  yields  previously  discussed  indicate  that 
heavy  applications  of  fertilizer  have  generally  given  as  good  yields  as 
manure,  a studv  of  the  chart  showing  the  six-year  rotation  under  different 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


treatments  shows  that  fertilizer  exceeded  manure  in  total  weight  of  crop 
during  the  first  three  periods  or  half  of  the  time  included,  but  manure 
gained  the  ascendency  through  the  last  three  periods.  Half  manure  and 
half  fertilizer  stood  lowest  of  the  three  treatments  for  the  first  three  per- 
iods but  for  the  remainder  of  the  time  stood  first  or  second  with  the  fer- 
tilizer plot  standing  in  third  place.  There  is  at  least  an  indication  here  that 
manure  or  a combination  of  manure  and  fertilizer  is  superior  to  fertilizers 
alone  in  maintaining  soil  fertility  through  long  periods  of  time. 

SOIL  MAINTENANCE 

The  efficiency  of  any  system  of  soil  management  will  depend  not 
alone  upon  its  ability  to  produce  an  immediate  profit,  but  upon  its  ability  to 
maintain  soil  fertility  and  guarantee  a permanent  productivity.  There 
is  no  better  single  index  to  the  maintenance  of  the  soil  of  different  plots  in 
the  same  field  than  their  nitrogen  content.  Besides  the  value  of  nitrogen 
itself,  it  is  a fairly  accurate  indicator  of  the  amount  of  organic  matter  re- 
maining in  the  soil.  Figure  8 shows  very  clearly  the  effect  of  different 


LEGEND  No  Treatment 


I 


Fertilized 


Fig.  8. — Yields  in  total  weight  of  dry  matter  with  various  crops  grown  continuously  on  the 
same  land  and  without  soil  treatment. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  19 


methods  of  management  on  the  nitrogen  remaining  in  the  soil  after  25  years 
of  cropping,  the  soil  samples  having  been  taken  at  that  time. 

Corn  is  clearly  the  most  exhaustive  crop  on  the  nitrogen  supply,  fol- 
lowed by  oats  and  wheat  which  do  not  differ  greatly,  and  finally  by  tim- 
othy which  appears  to  be  less  exhaustive  than  any  of  the  other  crops.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  it  proved  impossible  to  grow  clover  continuously. 
Rotations  have  been  less  exhaustive  of  soil  nitrogen  than  any  single  crop 
except  timothy.  This  results  from  the  fact  that  all  rotations  contain 
legume  or  sod  crops  or  both.  It  may  also  be  due  to  nitrogen  fixation 
through  azotobacter  or  similar  free  nitrogen  fixing  forms  in  timothy  sod 
as  shown  by  Rothamsted  data. 

Chemical  fertilizers,  although  maintaining  yields  when  used  in  large 
quantities,  have  not  kept  up  the  soil  nitrogen.  Evidently  most  of  the  ni- 
trogen not  used  by  the  immediate  crop  was  removed  Com  the  soil  by  leach- 
ing or  denitrification.  It  should  be  said  in  this  connection,  however,  that 
the  plots  receiving  chemical  fertilizers  are  located  on  a part  of  the  field 
which  slopes  slightly  more  than  the  average  and  a small  amount  of  erosion 
takes  place.  It  is  almost  certain  that  some  of  the  loss  of  nitrogen  may  be 
explained  by  this  fact.  Other  plots  similarly  located  but  not  fertilized 
with  commercial  nitrogen  are  very  little  below  the  average,  however,  and 
surface  erosion  does  not  explain  the  large  loss  of  nitrogen  where  fertilizers 
were  used. 

As  nitrogen  is  a fair  indicator  of  the  supply  of  organic  matter  in  the 
soil,  this  data  has  an  interesting  bearing  on  statements  sometimes  made 
in  soil  literature  that  the  heavy  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  tends  to 
maintain  organic  matter  through  increased  production  of  roots  and  stubble. 
There  is  little  evidence  to  sustain  this  view  in  these  experiments  if  the 
nitrogen  content  be  used  as  the  indicator.  The  nitrogen  in  the  continuous 
wheat  plot  receiving  large  amounts  of  fertilizer  is  appreciably  less  than 
that  in  the  continuous  wheat  plot  without  treatment.  However,  as  has 
been  mentioned,  the  last  named  plot  suffers  somewhat  less  from  erosion 
which,  in  the  light  of  other  experiments  at  this  station,  might  account  for 
the  observed  difference.  If  a comparison  is  made  between  the  six-year  ro- 
tation plot  receiving  fertilizers  only  and  the  plot  with  the  same  rotation 
without  treatment,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fertilized  one  contains  more 
nitrogen,  but  only  very  slightly  more,  than  the  one  without  treatment. 
Here  again  the  slope  of  the  fertilized  plot  is  a little  greater  than  that  of 
the  untreated  one. 

Manure  has  been  very  effective  in  keeping  up  the  nitrogen  supply  and 
all  plots  receiving  the  full  annual  application  of  6 tons  of  manure  per  acre 
stand  higher  in  nitrogen  than  the  soil  on  the  driveways,  which  has  never 
been  cropped  and  which  has  only  occasionally  had  the  bluegrass  and  weeds 
removed  when  they  were  allowed  to  get  too  tall  before  clipping.  Of  all 
the  plots  receiving  a full  application  of  manure  the  continuous  timothy 
plot  stands  highest  in  nitrogen.  The  non-cultivated  crops,  wheat  and  oats, 
stand  higher  than  corn.  This  bears  out  the  well  known  fact  that  stirring 
the  soil  hastens  decomposition  of  the  organic  matter  by  increasing  the  air 
supply  in  the  surface  soil  thus  promoting  nitrogen  loss. 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Nitrogen  in  Surface  Foot  of  Soil 


Fig.  9. — Nitrogen  in  surface  foot  of  soil,  after  25  years  of  cropping  (1889  to  1913). 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  21 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

In  the  light  of  these  old  experiments  it  is  evident  that  systems  of  soil 
management  which  produce  an  immediate  profit  and  at  the  same  time 
provide  for  a continuation  of  that  profit  by  maintaining  or  increasing  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  will  require  careful  and  intelligent  planning.  The  onl}' 
exception  to  this,  as  shown  by  these  experiments,  is  that  of  growing  con- 
tinuous timothy,  an  impractical  plan  in  all  but  a very  few  localities  of  the 
State. 

Organic  matter  and  nitrogen  must  be  maintained  and  this  requires  the 
use  of  a minimum  of  cultivated  crops,  since  cultivation  hastens  the  loss  of 
nitrogen  and  organic  matter.  As  many  legume  and  sod  crops  must  be 
used  as  the  particular  type  of  farming  will  profitably  admit.  The  four- 
year  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  clover  which  has  long  been  popu- 
lar with  many  farmers  seems  a little  the  best  of  those  tried.  In  this  case 
the  land  is  in  a cultivated  crop  only  one-fourth  of  the  time  which  is 
enough  on  any  but  strong  soils.  Even  strong  soils  will  deteriorate  if  more 
corn  is  grown,  unless  more,  than  ordinary  care  is  taken  to  return  manure, 
green  manure  or  crop  residues  and  it  is  cheaper  to  keep  soil  at  a high  pro- 
ducing capacity  than  it  is  to  restore  it  after  it  becomes  exhausted. 

Not  all  the  methods  of  maintaining  organic  matter  were  included  in 
these  experiments.  The  use  of  crop  residues  and  green  manure  crops 
should  be  considered  in  most  plans  of  soil  management. 

If  legume  crops  are  used  liberally  in  the  plan  for  keeping  up  organic 


Legend:  Com  £22  Wheat  EZZI  Timothy  Oats  HOI)  Clover  [==j 

Fig.  10. — Left:  Effect  of  manure  and  rotation  on  corn  yields  (30-year  average.)  Right: 

Crop  yields  in  six  year  rotation  with  different  soil  treatments  (30-year  average). 


22 


Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


matter,  nitrogen  will  be  taken  care  of  in  the  same  plan.  For  general  farm- 
ing purposes  in  Missouri  nitrogen  should  only  be  bought  for  general  field 
crops  on  the  thinner  lands  where  there  is  not  time  enough  to  build  up  soils 
by  the  slower  but  better  method  of  growing  legumes.  Even  in  such  cases 
the  amount  should  not  be  large  since  such  applications  are  prohibited  by 
the  expense. 

Keeping  up  organic  matter  and  keeping  the  soil  in  good  physical  con- 
dition largely  take  care  of  the  potash  problem  for  most  Missouri  soils 
since  they  contain  much  potash  and  it  is  largely  a question  of  hastening 
its  availability.  Potash,  like  nitrogen,  is  advisable  for  general  crops  only 
in  lather  small  quantities.  Its  use  is  advisable  only  in  mixed  fertilizers  on 
soils  relatively  low  in  available  potash. 


Continuous  corn  with  no  Corn  in  3 yr.  rotation  Corn  in  3 yr.  rotation 

treatment,  20.9  bu.  per  acre.  with  no  treatment,  32.6  bu.  manured,  43.4  bu.  per  acre, 
per  acre. 

Fig.  11. — Average  Annual  yield  of  corn  from  plots  variously  treated  during  30  years. 


The  one  element  of  fertility  which  must  be  purchased  in  a system  of 
general  farming,  livestock  farming  or  grain  farming  is  phosphorus.  All 
products  of  the  farm  contain  it  and  nearly  all  soils  have  a very  limited 
supply.  It  may  be  purchased  as  acid  phosphate,  bonemeal,  or  ground  rock 
phosphate.  These  and  other  experiments  of  long  duration  have  shown 
that  the  acid  added  in  making  phosphates  available  has  no  appreciable 
harmful  effects  upon  the  soil.  The  phosphate  in  bonemeal  is  partly  avail- 
able the  first  year  and  most  of  the  remainder  during  succeeding  years. 
For  immediate  profit  and  a quick  turnover  of  the  investment  one  of  the 
forms  containing  quickly  available  phosphate  should  be  used. 

SUMMARY 

1.  These  field  experiments  with  crop  rotations,  manure  and  fertilizers, 
were  begun  in  1888  and  30  years’  results  are  here  reported. 

2.  In  general,  crop  rotations  gave  better  yields  than  were  secured 
from  crops  grown  continuously  without  rotation. 

3.  Among  the  rotations  used,  the  four-year  rotation  of  corn,  oat3, 
wheat  and  clover  gave  somewhat  better  results  than  the  others. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  23 


4.  Crop  rotation  without  manure  was  practically  as  effective  in  main- 
taining the  average  yields  of  corn  and  wheat  as  was  heavy  manuring  where 
these  crops  were  grown  continuously  without  rotation. 

5.  Manure  was  more  effective  in  maintaining  a high  average  yield  of 
corn  and  grass  in  a six-year  rotation  than  was  heavy  fertilization  with 
chemical  fertilizers,  but  the  reverse  was  true  in  the  case  of  wheat  and  oats. 

6.  When  measured  by  the  30-year  average  yield,  heavy  applications  of 
chemical  fertilizers  were  as  effective  as  heavy  applications  of  barnyard 
manure  in  maintaining  the  total  produce  in  a six-year  rotation  of  corn, 
oats,  wheat,  clover,  timothy  and  timothy,  but  when  averaged  by  successive 
five-year  periods,  the  results  indicate  a growing  superiority  of  manure  oi 
a combination  of  manure  and  fertilizer. 

7.  Soil  analyses,  at  the  end  of  25  years,  indicated  that  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  soil  exhaustion  was  the  loss  of  nitrogen  and  organic  mat- 
ter. 

8.  The  crops  grown  continuously  without  rotation  or  manure  stood 

in  the  following  general  order  with  reference  to  the  reduction  of  the  sup- 
ply of  nitrogen:  First,  corn;  second,  oats  and  wheat;  third,  hay  crops. 

9.  Heavy  applications  of  barnyard  manure  were  very  effective  and 
heavy  applications  of  chemical  fertilizers  were  ineffective  in  maintaining 
the  supply  of  soil  nitrogen. 

10.  Crop  rotation  was  more  effective  on  the  average  than  continuous 
cropping  to  grain  crops,  but  less  effective  than  continuous  cropping  to  grass, 
in  maintaining  soil  nitrogen. 


24  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


APPENDIX 

The  following  tables  give  the  complete  crop  data  from  all  plots  used  in  the  30-year 
summary  of  the  results  of  the  experiments.  Where  a crop  failure  has  resulted  because 
of  soil  limitations,  due  to  the  cropping  system  used  or  the  treatment  given,  the  fact  is 
indicated  in  the  tables  by  the  symbols  0000.  Where  there  is  an  absence  of  records, 
due  to  other  causes  such  as  injury  from  chinch  bugs,  attacks  by  birds  or  incomplete 
data,  the  year  is  omitted  in  computing  averages  and  is  so  indicated. 


Plot  No.  1 

6- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 


*Manured  Annually 


I 

Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

13.27 

2160 

1890 

0000 

1891 

Timothy 

Omitted 

1892 

Corn 

61.43 

2060 

1893 

Oats.  . 

36.25 

3680 

1894 

Clover 

5500 

1895 

Wheat 

44.00 

4160 

1896 

Clover 

1000 

1897 

Timothy 

6540 

1898 

Corn 

35.00 

2080 

1899 

Oats 

41.00 

2890 

1900 

Clover 

6300 

1901 

Wheat 

40.10 

5595 

1902 

1903 

Timothy 

Omitted. 

1950 

1904 

Corn 

46.06 

2600 

1905 

Oats 

19.06 

1443 

1906 

Timothy 

2730 

1907 

Wheat 

28.20 

3634 

1908 

Timothy 

7216 

1909 

Timothy 

7618 

1910 

Corn 

50.30 

6864 

1911 

Oats 

24.07 

1100 

1912 

Wheat 

15.16 

2587 

1913 

Clover 

3887 

Average  Corn 

48.2 

3401 

Average  Oats 

30.1 

2278 

Average  Wheat 

28.1 

3627 

Average  Clover 

4172 

Average  Timothy 

4342 

* 7 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  9.1  tons  per  acre  annually;1904-1913; 
6 tons  per  acre  annually,  1914-1918. 


Plot  No.  2 

Wheat  Continuously 


*Complete  Fertilizer  for  Maximum  Wheat  Crop 


Year 

Crop 

Yi< 

Grain 

eld 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

20.58 

3225 

1890 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1891 

Wheat 

24.60 

2665 

1892 

Wheat 

13.33 

1980 

1893 

Wheat 

00.00 

0000 

1894 

Wheat 

34.53 

3700 

1895 

Wheat 

39.33 

4140 

1896 

Wheat 

12.50 

1970 

1897 

Wheat 

10.80 

1100 

1898 

Wheat 

3.30 

1400 

1899 

Wheat 

16.10 

1434 

1900 

Wheat 

17.30 

2040 

1901 

Wheat 

28.70 

3780 

1902 

Wheat 

26.60 

2650 

1903 

Wheat 

18.70 

3880 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1905 

Wheat 

7.90 

1024 

1906 

Wheat 

33.36 

4323 

1907 

Wheat 

27.90 

3616 

1908 

Wheat 

14.10 

1827 

1909 

Wheat 

23 . 00 

2474 

1910 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1911 

Wheat 

16.46 

2184 

1912 

Wheat 

7.69 

1515 

1913 

Wheat 

17.01 

2990 

1914 

Wheat 

20.32 

2741 

1915 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1916 

Wheat 

10.5 

2674 

1917 

Wheat 

6.5 

1162 

1918 

Wheat 

34.3 

3346 

Average  Wheat 

18.7 

2455 

* Annual  applications  of  enough  sodium 
nitrate,  dissolved  bone,  steamed  bone  or  acid 
phosphate,  and  muriate  of  potash  to  replace  all 
the  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium 
removed  in  a 40-bushel  crop  of  wheat  with  2 
tons  of  straw. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations 


25 


Plot  No.  3 

6-Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 


^Complete  Fertilizer  for  Maximum  Crops 


Year 

Crop 

Yi 

Grain 

eld 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

17.67 

2780 

1890 

Timothy 

0000 

1891 

Timothy 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1892 

Corn 

60.71 

4590 

1893 

Oats 

38.75 

4340 

1894 

3140 

1895 

Wheat 

38.67 

4180 

1896 

3740 

1897 

Timothy 

8220 

1898 

Corn 

34.10 

1700 

1899 

Oats 

39.40 

3200 

1900 

Clover 

4700 

1901 

Wheat  - 

43.30 

5790 

1902 

Timothy 

2120 

1903 

Omitted. 

1904 

Corn 

41.60 

2340 

1905 

Oats 

36.56 

1106 

1906 

Cowpeas 

1690 

1907 

Wheat 

24.08 

3121 

1908 

Timothy 

6318 

1909 

Timothy 

3888 

1910 

Corn 

46.20 

3302 

1911 

Oats 

17.88 

754 

1912 

Wheat 

21.99 

1320 

1913 

Clover 

2964 

1914 

Timothy 

527 

1915 

Timothy 

5600 

1916 

Corn 

25.6 

4340 

1917 

Oats 

62.7 

2764 

1918 

Wheat 

34.18 

3773 

Average  Corn 

41.6 

3254 

Average  Oats 

39.1 

2433 

Average  Wheat 

30.0 

3494 

Average  Clover 

3636 

Average  Timothy 

3810 

* Annual  applications  of  enough  nitrogen 
as  sodium  nitrate,  phosphorus  as  dissolved 
bone,  steamed  bone,  or  acid  phosphate  and 
potassium  as  muriate  of  potash  to  replace  all 
the  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium  re- 
moved in  a maximum  crop.  A maximum  crop 
was  assumed  to  be:  40  bu.  wheat  with  2 tons 

straw,  80  bushels  of  corn  with  2.4  tons  of  stover, 
60  bushels  of  oats  with  1.5  tons  of  straw,  and 
3 tons  of  clover  or  timothy  hay. 


Plot  No.  4 

6- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 

*Manure  Yi  Application 
■(■Fertilizers  for  Half  Maximum  Crop. 


Yield 


Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

15.83 

1800 

1890 

Timothy 

0000 

1891 

Timothy 

Omitted 

1892 

Corn 

52.14 

1880 

1893 

Oats 

32.19 

3770 

1894 

Clover 

3480 

1895 

Wheat 

42.50 

5000 

1896 

Clover 

2700 

1897 

Timothy 

5750 

1898 

Corn 

30.00 

1580 

1899 

Oats 

44.70 

3065 

1900 

Clover 

4320 

4340 

1901 

Wheat 

43.30 

1902 

Timothy 

2350 

1903 

Timothy 

1700 

1904 

Corn 

27.70 

1495 

1905 

Oats 

30.88 

2667 

1906 

Cowpeas 

1950 

1907 

Wheat 

24.80 

3214 

1908 

Timothy 

7138 

1909 

Timothy 

6254 

1910 

Corn 

46.80 

2366 

1911 

Oats 

14.83 

798 

1912 

Wheat 

17.66 

2295 

1913 

Clover 

3822 

1914 

Timothy 

788 

1915 

Timothy 

5236 

1916 

Corn 

27.2 

4676 

1917 

Oats 

65.5 

2688 

1918 

Wheat 

39.2 

3654 

Average  Corn 

36.8 

2399 

Average  Oats 

37.6 

2598 

Average  Wheat 

30.5 

3384 

Average  Clover 

3580 

Average  Timothy 

3652 

* 3 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  3.9  tons,  1904-1913;  3 tons,  1914-1918. 

t One-half  as  much  fertilizer  as  applied  on 
Plot  3,  using  the  same  materials. 


26  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  No.  5 


Plot  No.  6 


Wheat  Continuously 


Clover  Continuously 


*Manured  Annually 


*Manured  Annually 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

8.08 

1100 

1890 

1891 

Omitted. 
Wheat 

27.92 

2715 

1892 

Wheat 

8.83 

2290 

1893 

Wheat 

0.00 

0000 

1894 

Wheat 

30.17 

2390 

1895 

Wheat 

34.33 

3840 

1896 

Wheat 

11.83 

1930 

1897 

Wheat 

13.80 

1825 

1898 

Wheat 

4.00 

1100 

1899 

Wheat 

13.60 

1304 

1900 

Wheat 

19.30 

2380 

1901 

Wheat 

23.30 

3160 

1902 

Wheat 

35.20 

6210 

1903 

Wheat 

17.26 

2632 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1905 

Wheat 

12.35 

1601 

1906 

Wheat 

7.15 

927 

1907 

Wheat 

17.10 

2216 

1908 

Wheat 

14.50 

1879 

1909 

Wheat 

00.00 

0000 

1910 

Wheat 

12.68 

2968 

1911 

Wheat 

6.50 

1196 

1912 

Wheat 

12.56 

1970 

1913 

Wheat 

15.93 

3081 

Average  Wheat 

15.00 

2118 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903  ; 7.8  tons,  1904-13. 


Yield 

Year 

* Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Clover 

4200 

1890 

Clover 

5600 

1891 

Clover 

3620 

1892 

Clover 

3000 

1893 

Clover 

3680 

1894 

Clover 

4040 

1895 

Clover 

4800 

1896 

Clover 

2800 

1897 

Clover 

1900 

1898 

Clover 

3000 

1899 

Clover 

5180 

1900 

Clover 

1400 

1901 

Clover 

2440 

1902 

Clover 

3200 

1903 

Clover 

Omitted 

1904 

Clover 

Omitted 

1905 

Clover 

Omitted 

1906 

Clover 

Omitted 

1907 

Clover 

Omitted 

1908 

Clover 

0000 

1909 

Cowpeas 

3562 

1910 

Cowpeas 

7852 

1911 

Cowpeas 

4000 

1912 

Cowpeas 

6500 

1913 

Cowpeas. ..... 

2210 

Average  Clover 

3257 

Average  Cowneas.  ...... 

4825 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889* 
1903;  7.8  tons  1904-1913. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  27 


Plot  No.  7 

Clover  Continuously 


No  Manure  or  Fertilizer 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

2600 

1890 

4300 

1891 

3720 

1892 

2850 

1893 

1420 

1894 

Clover 

2550 

1895 

Clover 

3500 

1896 

Clover 

2300 

1897 

Clover ........ 

1300 

1898 

Clover 

1320 

1899 

Clover 

3380 

1900 

Clover 

720 

1901 

Clover 

1220 

1902 

Clover 

2850 

1903 

Clover  (1) 

Ab 

andoned 

1904 

Clover 

Ab 

andoned 

1905 

Clover 

Ab 

andoned 

1906 

Clover 

Ab 

andoned 

1907 

Clover 

Ab 

andoned 

1908 

Clover 

Ab 

andoned 

1909 

Clover 

Omitted 

1910 

Oats 

13.80 

1606 

1911 

Clover 

Omitted 

1912 

Wheat 

19.61 

2151 

1913 

Cowpeas 

1547 

1914 

Cowpeas 

4056 

1915 

Cowpeas 

4270 

1916 

Cowpeas 

5684 

1917 

Cowpeas 

3514 

1918 

Cowpeas 

4760 

Average  Clover 

2430 

Average  Cowpeas 

3972 

(1)  Plot  not  used  for  experiment  during 
this  period. 


Plot  No.  8 

6- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 


*Manured  Annually 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Clover 

3450 

1890 

Clover 

4010 

1891 

Timothy 

7350 

1892 

Timothy 

5400 

1893 

Corn 

38.57 

3940 

1894 

Oats 

42 . 50 

1320 

1895 

Clover 

5480 

1896 

Wheat 

31.33 

3820 

1897 

Timothy 

4250 

1898 

Timothy 

4960 

1899 

Corn 

45.20 

2200 

1900 

Oats 

53.60 

2285 

1901 

Clover 

1030 

1902 

Wheat 

29.80 

6010 

1903 

1904 

Wheat 

(1) 

15.27 

2983 

Average  Corn 

41.9 

3070 

Average  Oats 

48.0 

1802 

Average  Wheat 

25.5 

4271 

Average  Clover 

3492 

Average  Timothy 

5490 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1880- 
1903.  Plot  discontinued  after  1903. 

(1)  Plot  abandoned  to  give  room  for  a 
street. 


28  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  No.  9 

Wheat  Continuously 


No  Manure  or  Fertilizer 


Year 

Crop 

Yie 

Grain 

Id 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

8.17 

935 

1890 

Wheat 

Omitted 

1891 

Wheat 

24.58 

2725 

1892 

Wheat 

6.17 

1610 

1893 

Wheat 

0.00 

0000 

1894 

Wheat 

18.00 

1880 

1895 

Wheat 

22.00 

2880 

1896 

Wheat 

2.83 

390 

1897 

Wheat 

1.66 

210 

1898 

Wheat 

2.70 

720 

1899 

Wheat 

2.70 

318 

1900 

Wheat 

10.70 

1360 

1901 

Wheat 

15.60 

1855 

1902 

Wheat 

28.60 

3935 

1903 

Wheat 

11.48 

3276 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

1905 

Wheat 

Omitted 

1906 

Wheat 

5.85 

758 

1907 

Wheat 

7.05 

914 

1908 

Wheat 

7.10 

920 

1909 

Wheat 

0.00 

000 

1910 

Wheat 

10.51 

1444 

1911 

Wheat 

4.98 

486 

1912 

Wheat 

1.30 

228 

1913 

Wheat 

8.83 

913 

1914 

Wheat 

20.07 

1922 

1915 

Wheat 

1.98 

399 

1916 

Wheat 

8.40 

1197 

1917 

Wheat 

.20 

112 

1918 

Wheat 

1 

21.00 

2114 

Average  Wheat 

9 . 5 

1241 

Plot  No.  10 
Wheat  Continuously 


*Manured  Annually 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

15.00 

1580 

1890 

Wheat 

Omitted 

1891 

Wheat 

31.25 

4475 

1892 

Wheat 

14.00 

2920 

1893 

Wheat 

0.00 

0000 

1894 

Wheat 

34.83 

2630 

1895 

Wheat 

40.67 

5160 

1896 

Wheat 

20.00 

1240 

1897 

Wheat 

6.10 

935 

1898 

Wheat 

5.25 

2025 

1899 

Wheat 

15.80 

1690 

1900 

Wheat 

21.50 

2790 

1901 

Wheat 

25.20 

3410 

1902 

Wheat 

27.10 

4830 

1903 

Wheat 

16.02 

3100 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

1905 

Wheat 

15.38 

1933 

1906 

Wheat 

8.66 

1122 

1907 

Wheat 

10.80 

1400 

1908 

Wheat 

16.10 

2087 

1909 

Wheat 

15.20 

1970 

1910 

Wheat 

6.21 

3234 

1911 

Wheat 

10.30 

1538. 

1912 

Wheat 

12.46 

2204 

1913 

Wheat 

16.90 

3205 

1914 

Wheat 

26.37 

3707 

1915 

Wheat 

18.66 

1988 

1916 

Wheat 

10.7 

2114 

1917 

Wheat 

10.9 

1820 

1918 

Wheat 

30.33 

3402 

Average  Wheat 

17.2 

2447 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1903-1913;  6 tons,  1914-1918. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  29 


Plot  No.  11 

6- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 


*Manured  Annually 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

16.17 

1800 

1890 

Timothy 

3120 

1891 

Timothy 

6860 

1892 

Corn 

37.93 

1420 

1893 

Oats 

27.81 

1750 

1894 

Clover 

4580 

1895 

Wheat 

44.00 

5560 

1896 

Clover 

1280 

1897 

Timothy 

6700 

1898 

Corn 

27.00 

1380 

1899 

Oats 

36.70 

2525 

1900 

Clover .... 

7080 

1901 

Wheat 

43.30 

6650 

1902 

1903 

Timothy 

Omitted. 

2750 

1904 

Corn 

43.83 

1820 

1905 

Oats 

28.03 

2243 

1906 

Cowpeas 

1690 

1907 

Wheat 

26.43 

3426 

1908 

Timothy 

7398 

1909 

Timothy 

8320 

1910 

Corn 

51.60 

3146 

1911 

Oats 

18.50 

1072 

1912 

Wheat 

22.48 

3129 

1913 

Clover 

4303 

Average  Corn 

40,1 

1941 

Average  Oats 

27.8 

1898 

Average  Wheat 

30.5 

4113 

Average  Clover 

4311 

Average  Timothy 

5858 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


Plot  No.  12 


6- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 

^Manured  Annually 


Year 

Crop 

Yi( 

Grain 

-Id 

Forag< 

1889 

Timothy 

1500 

1890 

Timothy 

4690 

1891 

Corn 

41.50 

2470 

1892 

Oats 

00.00 

0000 

1893 

Clover 

5900 

1894 

Wheat 

43.50 

4090 

1895 

Timothy 

4300 

1896 

Clover 

6080 

1897 

Corn 

64.80 

3920 

1898 

Oats 

8.00 

1104 

1899 

Clover 

2380 

1900 

Wheat 

28.80 

4030 

1901 

Timothy 

0000 

1902 

Timothy 

1750 

1903 

Omitted. 

1904 

Oats 

17.47 

1398 

1905 

Wheat . . 

Omitt( 

1906 

Omitted. 

1907 

Timothy 

3250 

1908 

Timothy 

7840 

1909 

Corn 

31.94 

3040 

1910 

Oats 

34.10 

2170 

1911 

Oats 

17.40 

980 

1912 

Wheat 

23.29 

3332 

1913 

Clover 

5538 

Average  Corn 

46.1 

3143 

Average  Oats 

15.4 

1130 

Average  Wheat 

31.9 

3817 

Average  Clover 

4974 

Average  Timothy 

3333 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


30  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  No.  13 

6- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 

No  Manure  or  Fertilizer 


Year 

Crop 

Yie 

Grain 

>ld 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

6.50 

820 

1890 

Timothy 

1790 

1891 

3920 

1892 

Corn 

25.71 

1300 

1893 

Oats 

21.88 

3160 

1894 

1230 

1895 

Wheat 

33.00 

3170 

1896 

Timothy 

1900 

1897 

Timothy 

4600 

1898 

Corn 

25.10 

1340 

1899 

Oats 

32.80 

1290 

1930 

Clover  . 

3780 

1931 

Wheat 

39.30 

3190 

1902 

Timothy ... 

130 

1&03 

Corn 

85.42 

4290 

1904 

Corn 

54.20 

2145 

1905 

Oats 

16.65 

1330 

1906 

Cowpeas  . 

1040 

1907 

Wheat 

10.80 

1404 

1908 

Timothy 

3536 

1909 

Timothy 

2820 

1910 

Corn 

39.40 

962 

1911 

Oats 

13.82 

636 

1912 

Wheat 

13.97 

1359 

1913 

Clover . . 

1508 

1914 

Timothy 

124 

1915 

Timothy 

3192 

1916 

Corn 

19.00 

1680 

1917 

Oats 

51.10 

2184 

1918 

Wheat 

16.80 

1540 

Average  Corn 

41.5 

1899 

Average  Oats 

27.2 

1720 

Average  Wheat 

20.1 

1914 

Average  Clover 

2173 

Average  Timothy 

2446 

Plot  No.  14 


6-Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 

*Manured  Annually 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

1890 

Oats 

Clover 

29.53 

1945 

0000 

1891 

1892 

Wheat 

Timothy  .... 

27.00 

3140 

4280 

1893 

Timothy 

4340 

1894 

1895 

Corn 

Oats 

12.00 

25.00 

3440 

1620 

1896 

Clover 

5580 

1897 

1898 

Wheat 

Timothy 

37.67 

4640 

5280 

1899 

Timothy 

5040 

1900 

1901 

Corn 

Oats 

41.40 

2.30 

2100 

545 

1902 

Clover 

2100 

1903 

1904 

Omitted. 
Timothy 

Omitted 

1905 

Omitted 

1906 

Corn 

Omitted 

1907 

Oats 

34.93 

2795 

1908 

Clover 

0000 

1909 

Wheat 

16.50 

2138 

1910 

Corn 

52.90 

2302 

1911 

Oats 

23.98 

1220 

1912 

Wheat 

21.99 

3419 

1913 

Clover 

5018 

Average  Corn 

35.4 

2614 

Average  Oats 

23.1 

1625 

Average  Wheat 

25.8 

3334 

Average  Clover 

2540 

Avpratrfl  Tim  nth  v 

4735 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually, 
1889-1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  31 


Plot  No.  15 
Oats  Continuously 


♦Manured  Annually 


Year 

Crop 

Yu 

Grain 

>ld 

Forage 

1889 

Oats 

36.88 

2507 

1890 

Oats 

Omitted 

1891 

Oats 

25.94 

3970 

1892 

Oats 

0.00 

0000 

1893 

Oats 

30.63 

1480 

1894 

Oats 

30.31 

1390 

1895 

Oats 

42.19 

2750 

1896 

Timothy 

4400 

1897 

Oats 

36.00 

3000 

1898 

Oats 

4.70 

390 

1899 

Oats 

27.30 

1285 

1900 

Oats 

49.80 

2415 

1901 

Oats 

2.00 

430 

1902 

Oats 

15.10 

1065 

1903 

Oats 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1904 

Oats 

31.30 

2504 

1905 

Oats 

19.09 

1527 

1906 

Oats 

34.13 

2720 

1907 

Oats 

37.37 

2990 

1908 

Oats 

29.04 

2323 

1909 

Oats 

15.84 

1267 

1910 

Oats 

29.74 

2584 

1911 

Oats 

26.10 

1460 

1912 

Oats 

32.44 

2288 

1913 

Oats 

9.55 

1144 

1914 

Oats 

5.28 

1033 

1915 

Oats 

35.81 

2338 

1916 

Oats 

30.2 

2296 

1917 

Oats 

65.1 

3122 

1918 

Oats 

36.08 

1771 

Average  Oats 

27.3 

1928 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913;  6 tons,  1914-1918. 


Plot  No.  1G 
Oats  Continuously 


No  Manure  or  Fertilizer 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 



1889 

Oats 

27.35 

2207 

1890 

Oats 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1891 

Oats 

18.44 

3540 

1892 

Oats 

00.00 

0000 

1893 

Oats 

17.82 

840 

1894 

Oats 

30.94 

1270 

1895 

Oats 

28.13 

1080 

1896 

Timothy 

2850 

1897 

Oats 

11.00 

450 

1808 

Oats 

2.50 

260 

1899 

Oats 

13.40 

550 

1900 

Oats 

24.80 

1105 

1901 

Oats 

1.10 

190 

1902 

Oats 

20.80 

785 

1903 

Oats 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1904 

Oats 

7.30 

584 

1905 

Oats 

7.31 

585 

1906 

Oats 

17.06 

1365 

1907 

Oats 

21.93 

1754 

1908 

Oats 

10.16 

813 

1909 

Oats 

12.19 

994 

1910 

Oats 

9.03 

542 

1911 

Oats 

5.01 

320 

1912 

Oats 

29.34 

1248 

1913 

Oats 

3.86 

338 

1914 

Oats 

4.06 

432 

1915 

Oats 

30.62 

1722 

1916 

Oats 

29.00 

1036 

1917 

Oats 

53.70 

2044 

1918 

Oats 

19.90 

772 

Average  Oats 

16.9 

1099 

32  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  Xo.  17 


Plot  No.  18 


Corn  Continuously 


Corn  Continuously 


No  Manure  or  Fertilizer 


*Manured  Annually 


Year 

Crop 

Yie 

Id 

Year 

Crop 

Yield 

Grain 

Forage 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Corn 

27.14 

3070 

1889 

Corn 

34.86 

4020 

1890 

Corn 

41.14 

2190 

1890 

Corn 

60.71 

3350 

1891 

Corn 

32.07 

1870 

1891 

Corn 

36.36 

2990 

1892 

42.14 

3550 

1892 

Corn 

51.43 

2200 

1893 

Corn 

24.86 

3660 

1893 

Corn 

34.00 

3340 

1894 

Corn 

17.14 

2160 

1894 

Corn 

30.29 

3040 

1895 

Corn 

31.43 

2300 

1895 

Corn . . . 

64  31 

3900 

1896 

Corn 

21.00 

1590 

1896 

Corn 

46.42 

2890 

1897 

Corn 

22.90 

1900 

1897 

Corn 

47.20 

2700 

1898 

Corn 

23.90 

1340 

1898 

Corn 

25.60 

1380 

1899 

Corn 

19.40 

1200 

1899 

Corn 

31.90 

2o00 

1900 

Corn 

16.80 

1200 

1900 

Corn 

28.60 

1500 

1901 

Corn 

5.70 

750 

1901 

Corn 

11.30 

1450 

1902 

Corn 

38.00 

1800 

1902 

Corn 

79.40 

3060 

1903 

Corn 

29 . 53 

1954 

1903 

Corn 

55.54 

2808 

1904 

Corn 

17.10 

2275 

1904 

Corn 

13.37 

1885 

1905 

Corn 

11  .'88 

1612 

1905 

Corn 

64.25 

3652 

1906 

Corn 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1906 

Corn 

Omitted 

1907 

Corn 

11.70 

1196 

1907 

Cofn 

33.42 

1768 

1908 

Corn 

4.45 

3470 

1908 

Corn 

11.70 

3992 

1909 

Corn 

1.30 

1886 

1909 

Corn 

16.57 

2938 

1910 

Corn 

1.85 

754 

1910 

Corn 

6.50 

1418 

1911 

Corn 

13.18 

1677 

1911 

Corn 

25.07 

2690 

1912 

Corn 

27.01 

1469 

1912 

Corn 

30.82 

1625 

1913 

Corn 

6.96 

2730 

1913 

Corn 

19.22 

3870 

1914 

Corn 

28.78 

2678 

1914 

Corn 

33.89 

4079 

1915 

Corn 

38.00 

2744 

1915 

Corn 

45.70 

3332 

1916 

Corn 

7.4 

1988 

1916 

Corn 

14.6 

3066 

1917 

Corn 

27.59 

1610 

1917 

Corn 

35.59 

3668 

1918 

Corn 

14.4 

2884 

1918 

Corn 

22  4 

5166 

Average  Corn 

20.9 

2052 

Average  Corn 

34.9 

2889 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913;  6 tons,  1914-1918. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  33 


Plot  No.  19 

(5-Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 

^Manured  Annually 


— 

Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Corn 

28.43 

3340 

1890 

Oats 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1891 

3020 

1892 

Wheat 

14.83 

4590 

1893 

Timothy 

3280 

1894 

Timothy 

4880 

1895 

Corn 

80.00 

4700 

1896 

Timothy 

5000 

1897 

Clover 

5400 

1898 

Wheat 

9.50 

2650 

1899 

Timothy 

4700 

1900 

Timothy 

5500 

1901 

Corn 

15.80 

1775 

1902 

Oats 

Omitted 

2100 

1903 

Omitted. 

1904 

1905 

Wheat 

Omitted. 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1906 

Timothy 

0000 

1907 

Corn 

53.48 

2327 

1908 

Oats 

26.41 

2113 

1909 

Cowpeas 

4784 

1910 

Wheat 

19.17 

4134 

1911 

Oats 

22.45 

940 

1912 

Wheat 

12.86 

1930 

1913 

Clover 

5109 

Average  Corn 

44.4 

3035 

Average  Oats 

24.4 

1718 

Average  Wheat 

14.1 

3326 

Average  Clover 

4510 

Average  Timothy 

3893 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons  1904-1913. 


Plot  No.  20 

6- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover,  Timothy,  Timothy 


*Manured  Annually 


Year 

Crop 

Yie 

Grain 

Id 

Forage 

1889 

Timothy 

2950 

1890 

Timothy 

5040 

1891 

Corn 

41.71 

2960 

1892 

Oats 

0.00 

0000 

1893 

Clover 

4540 

1894 

Wheat 

41.33 

4070 

1895 

Timothy 

4400 

1896 

Clover 

5700 

1897 

Corn 

64.80 

3750 

1898 

Oats 

4.70 

910 

1899 

Clover . . . 

2400 

1900 

Wheat 

33.70 

3740 

1901 

Timothy 

0000 

1902 

Timothy 

2000 

1903 

Corn 

78.74 

4472 

1904 

Oats 

25.20 

2016 

1905 

Omitted. 

1906 

Wheat 

18.83 

2440 

1907 

Timothy 

4160 

1908 

Timothy 

7240 

1909 

Corn 

28.79 

2510 

1910 

Oats 

44.05 

2978 

1911 

Oats 

17.88 

800 

1912 

Wheat 

16.09 

2875 

1913 

Clover . . 

4810 

1914 

Timothy 

766 

1915 

Timothy 

6818 

1916 

Corn 

28.00 

4060 

1917 

Oats 

60.50 

2876 

1918 

Wheat 

34.30 

3990 

Average  Corn 

48.4 

3550 

Average  Oats 

25.4 

1597 

Average  Wheat 

28.9 

3423 

Average  Clover . . 

4362 

Average  Timothy 

3708 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913;  6 tons,  1914-1918. 


34  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  No.  21 
Wheat  Continuously 
^Manured  Annually 


Year 

Crop 

Yi< 

Grain 

eld 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

11.83 

1910 

1890 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1891 

Wheat 

30.83 

5370 

1892 

Wheat 

24.00 

3360 

1893 

Wheat 

00.00 

0000 

1894 

Wheat 

39.17 

3060 

1895 

Wheat 

43.33 

4800 

1896 

Wheat 

20.17 

2950 

1897 

Wheat 

8.40 

1195 

1898 

Wheat 

6.30 

1580 

1899 

Wheat 

15.80 

1590 

1900 

Wheat 

23.50 

3330 

1901 

Wheat 

24.12 

3420 

1902 

Wheat 

32.60 

6790 

1903 

Wheat 

6.82 

2450 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1905 

Wneat 

15.60 

2022 

1906 

Wheat 

7.15 

927 

1907 

Wheat 

24.05 

3117 

1908 

Wheat 

23.90 

3097 

1909 

Wheat 

11.70 

1516 

1910 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1911 

Wheat 

30.55 

3472 

1912 

Wheat 

12.07 

2384 

1913 

Wheat 

17.44 

3387 

Average  Wheat 

19.5 

2806 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


Plot  No.  22 
Timothy  Continuously 
^Manured  Annually 


Year 

Crop 

Yii 

Grain 

eld 

Forage 

1889 

Timothy 

2100 

1890 

Timothy 

5790 

1891 

Timothy 

7600 

1892 

Timothy 

6960 

1893 

Timothy 

6200 

1894 

Timothy 

4640 

1895 

Timothy 

6500 

1896 

Timothy 

5840 

1897 

Timothy 

6100 

1898 

Timothy 

5980 

1899 

Timothy 

4760 

1900 

Timothy 

4800 

1901 

Timothy 

2400 

1902 

Timothy 

5700 

1903 

Timothy 

Omitted 

1904 

Timothy ..... 

Omitted 

1905 

Timothy 

Omitted 

1906 

Timothy 

2275 

1907 

Timothy 

2730 

1908 

Timothy 

7812 

1909 

Timothy 

6032 

1910 

Timothy 

4160 

1911 

Timothy 

2600 

1912 

Timothy 

6110 

1913 

Timothy 

3042 

1914 

Timothy 

889 

1915 

Timothy 

6888 

1916 

Timothy 

6650 

1917 

Timothy 

5586 

1918 

Timothy 

2240 

Average  Timothy 

4902 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913;  6 tons,  1914-1918. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  35 


Plot  No.  23 
Timothy  Continuously 


No  Manure  or  Fertilizer 


Year 

Crop 

Yit 

Grain 

;ld 

Forage 

1889 

Timothy 

1600 

1890 

Timothy 

2290 

1891 

Timothy 

4760 

1892 

Timothy 

4000 

1893 

Timothy 

3820 

1894 

Timothy 

3880 

1895 

Timothy 

5440 

1896 

Timothy 

2480 

1897 

Timothy 

2400 

1898 

Timothy 

3000 

1899 

Timothy 

2260 

1900 

Timothy 

2500 

1901 

Timothy 

1150 

1902 

Timothy 

4500 

1903 

Timothy 

Omitted 

1904 

Timothy 

Omitted 

1905 

Timothy 

Omitted 

1906 

Timothy 

1820 

1907 

Timothy 

0000 

1908 

Timothy 

3654 

1909 

Timothy 

2146 

1910 

Timothy 

2340 

1911 

Timothy 

0000 

1912 

Timothy 

4550 

1913 

Timothy 

1339 

1914 

Timothy 

546 

1915 

Timothy 

3276 

1916 

Timothy 

3220 

1917 

Timothy 

2142 

1918 

Timothy 

490 

Average  Timothy 

2577 

Plot  No.  24 
Wheat  Continuously 


^Manured  Annually 


Year 

Crop 

Yii 

Grain 

-Id 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

17.00 

1780 

1890 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1891 

Wheat 

30.60 

2065 

1892 

Wheat 

13.67 

3540 

1893 

Wheat 

00.00 

0000 

1894 

Wheat 

31.17 

3170 

1895 

Wheat 

39.17 

5950 

1896 

Wheat 

18.66 

2100 

1897 

Wheat 

8.20 

1060 

1898 

Wheat 

4.80 

1390 

1899 

Wheat 

12.00 

1140 

1900 

Wheat 

19.30 

2920 

1901 

Wheat 

23.60 

1485 

1902 

Wheat 

30.10 

4840 

1903 

Wheat 

7.47 

2440 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1905 

Wheat 

15.60 

2022 

1906 

Wheat 

11.83 

1533 

1907 

Wheat 

23.07 

2980 

1908 

Wheat 

24.70 

3320 

1909 

Wheat 

13.80 

1788 

1910 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1911 

Wheat 

28.55 

3318 

1912 

Wheat 

10.72 

1970 

1913 

Wheat 

17.33 

2743 

Average  Wheat 

18.2 

2443 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


36  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  No.  25 

3- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Wheat, 

Clover 


*Manured  Annually 


Year 

Crop 

Yie 

Grain 

Id 

Forage 

1889 

Corn 

37.71 

3310 

1890 

0000 

1891 

Wheat 

17.00 

1690 

1892 

Corn 

52.00 

5400 

1893 

5880 

1894 

Wheat 

39.67 

2500 

1895 

Corn 

77.14 

3800 

1896 

Clover 

2040 

1897 

Wheat 

20.17 

2490 

1898 

Corn 

25.20 

1400 

1899 

Clover .... 

3240 

1900 

Wheat 

23.50 

3390 

1901 

Corn 

8.20 

1050 

1902 

Clover 

Omitted 

1903 

Omitted. 

1904 

Corn 

38.70 

1534 

1905 

Omitted. 

1906 

Wheat 

17.11 

2217 

1907 

Corn 

56.64 

2080 

1908 

Wheat 

29.40 

3910 

1909 

Cowpeas 

4446 

1910 

Corn 

28.04 

1600 

1911 

Wheat 

32 . 12 

3286 

1912 

Cowpeas 

7410 

1913 

Corn 

25.07 

6669 

1914 

Wheat 

35.67 

4074 

1915 

Cowpeas 

6146 

1916 

Corn 

24.80 

3038 

1917 

Wheat 

31.00 

4312 

1918 

Clover 

5908 

Average  Corn 

37.3 

2988 

Average  Wheat 

27.3 

3096 

Average  Clover 

3414 

Plot  No.  26 

3- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Wheat, 

Clover 


*Manured  Annually 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Clover 

2300 

1890 

Clover 

5320 

1891 

Corn 

41.71 

2450 

1892 

Clover 

0000 

1893 

Wheat 

9.00 

1480 

1894 

Corn 

33.71 

3720 

1895 

Clover 

4600 

1896 

Wheat 

31.50 

4550 

1897 

Corn 

45.40 

2660 

1898 

Clover 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1899 

Wheat 

16.60 

1620 

1900 

Corn 

47.90 

2320 

1901 

Clover 

0000 

1902 

Wheat 

25.50 

6520 

1903 

Corn 

82.08 

3900 

1904 

Clover 

Omitted 

1905 

Wheat 

22.31 

2891 

1906 

Corn 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1907 

Clover 

0000 

1908 

Clover 

5450 

1909 

Corn 

22.29 

1833 

1910 

Wheat 

9.64 

2818 

1911 

Wheat 

31.80 

3424 

1912 

Cowpeas 

8710 

1913 

Corn 

24.14 

7176 

Average  Corn 

42.5 

3437 

Average  Wheat 

20.9 

3329 

Average  Clover 

2524 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons  1904-1913;  6 tons,  1913-1918. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  37 


Plot  No.  27 

3- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Wheat, 

Clover 

No  Manure  or  Fertilizer 


Yield 


Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

14.92 

1505 

1890 

Corn 

28.36 

1990 

1891 

Omitted 

1892 

Wheat 

9.17 

1450 

1893 

Corn 

24.29 

2500 

1894 

Clover 

1350 

1895 

Wheat 

27.50 

2400 

1896 

Corn 

34.85 

2020 

1897 

Clover 

2660 

1898 

Wheat 

5.00' 

1910 

1899 

Corn 

25.50 

1320 

1900 

Clover 

1800 

1901 

Wheat 

23.30 

2960 

1902 

1903 

Corn 

Omitted. 

65.30 

1850 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1905 

Corn 

50.70 

2470 

1906 

Cowpeas 

1300 

1907 

Corn 

47.17 

2665 

1908 

Wheat 

6.90 

1294 

1909 

Cowpeas 

2054 

1910 

Corn 

16.57 

1522 

1911 

Wheat 

11.48 

1170 

1912 

Cowpeas 

4450 

1913 

Corn 

13.93 

5837 

1914 

Wheat 

18.09 

1452 

1915 

Cowpeas 

2688 

1916 

Corn 

19.60 

2604 

1917 

Wheat 

13.50 

1316 

1918 

Clover 

1862 

Average  Corn 

32.6 

2478 

Average  Wheat 

14.4 

1717 

Average  Clover 

1918 

Plot  No.  28 

3- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Wheat, 

Clover 

*Manured  Annually 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

18 . 42 

2445 

1890 

Corn 

45.79 

2220 

1891  j 

Clover 

Omitted 

1892 

Wheat 

24.17 

4200 

1893 

Corn 

34.60 

3500 

1894 

Clover 

3500 

1895 

Wheat 

42.33 

4460 

1896 

Corn 

51.42 

2720 

1897 

Clover 

7440 

1898 

Wheat 

15.70 

2720 

1899 

Corn 

37.90 

1860 

1900 

Clover 

4600 

1901 

Wheat 

34.50 

4500 

1902 

1903 

Corn 

Omitted. 

88.60 

1850 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1905 

Corn 

77.62 

3315 

1906 

Cowpeas 

1820 

1907 

Corn 

65.92 

3679 

1908 

Wheat 

29.20 

3784 

1909 

Cowpeas 

3042 

1910 

Corn 

32.69 

2626 

1911 

Wheat 

33.58 

3586 

1912 

Cowpeas 

7150 

1913 

Corn 

1 

24.70 

7059 

Average  Corn 

51.0 

3203 

Average  Wheat 

28.3 

3671 

Average  Clover 

5180 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1903-1913. 


38  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  No.  29  (1) 
Wheat  Continuously 
No  Manure  or  Fertilizer 


Year 

Crop 

Yie 

Grain 

Id 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

25.42 

3205 

1890 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1891 

Wheat 

33.83 

4450 

1892 

Wheat 

23.50 

2950 

1893 

Wheat 

00.00 

0000 

1894 

Wheat 

29.75 

3840 

1895 

Wheat 

36.00 

3890 

1896 

Wheat 

9.83 

1230 

1897 

Wlieat 

8.33 

650 

1898 

Wheat 

3.16 

890 

1899 

Wheat 

3.00 

300 

1900 

Wheat 

10.50 

1230 

1901 

Wheat 

21.00 

940 

1902 

W heat 

31.50 

2920 

1903 

Wheat 

10.82 

2115 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1905 

Wheat 

19.28 

2499 

1906 

Wheat 

8.01 

1038 

1907 

Wheat 

9.53 

1235 

1908 

Wheat 

16.40 

2125 

Average  Wheat 

16.7 

1973 

* No  manure,  1889-1907.  7.8  tons  manure 

1908-1913. 

(1)  Plot  29  omitted  from  general  average 
because  of  a change  of  plan  after  1908. 


Plot  No.  30 
Wheat  Continuously 


*Manured  Annually 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

20.92 

2045 

1890 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1891 

Wheat 

31.92 

4355 

1892 

Wheat 

26.17 

3210 

1893 

Wheat 

00.00 

OOdO 

1894 

Wheat 

33.58 

3085 

1895 

Wheat 

41.33 

3970 

1896 

Wheat 

26.00 

2980 

1897 

Wheat 

14.80 

181 

1898 

Wheat 

8.50 

2210 

1899 

Wheat 

15.70 

1580 

1900 

Wheat 

16.70 

2260 

1901 

Wheat 

28.50 

3510 

1902 

Wheat 

25.80 

5430 

1903 

Wheat 

7.36 

2710 

1904 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1905 

Wheat 

29.66 

3844 

1906 

Wheat 

11.26 

1459 

1907 

Wheat 

11.37 

1474 

1908 

Wheat 

19.10 

2475 

1909 

Wheat 

19.40 

1348 

1910 

Wheat 

Omitted 

Omitted 

1911 

Wheat 

18.35 

2490 

1912 

Wheat 

12.02 

2763 

1913 

Wheat 

22.53 

3510 

Average  Wheat 

19.6 

2586 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  39 


Plot  No.  31 

2-Year  Rotation:  Wheat,  Clover 

*Manured  Annually. 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

21.33 

2030 

1890 

3200 

1891 

Wheat 

31.35 

4935 

1892 

4760 

1893 

Wheat 

9.33 

1&60 

1894 

Clover . . 

5380 

1895 

Wheat 

43.33 

3940 

1896 

Clover . . 

2200 

1897 

Wheat 

30.33 

3680 

1898 

Clover 

5260 

1899 

Wheat 

14.80 

1712 

1900 

Clover .... 

7400 

1901 

Wheat 

38.20 

5950 

1902 

Clover . . . 

1450 

1903 

Omitted. 

1904 

Omitted. 

1905 

Wheat 

11.05 

1432 

1906 

Cowpeas . 

2470 

1907 

Wheat 

24.24 

3141 

1908 

Clover 

9932 

1909 

Wheat 

12.10 

15S8 

1910 

Cowpeas 

5408 

1911 

Wheat 

32.55 

3404 

1912 

Cowpeas ... 

4550 

1913 

Wheat 

27.79 

3039 

1914 

Cowpeas 

5135 

1915 

Wheat 

25.08 

3955 

1916 

Cowpeas 

7308 

1917 

Wheat 

27.40 

3520 

1918 

Clover 

6006 

Average  Wheat 

24.9 

3155 

Average  Clover 

5C63 

Average  Cowpeas 

4974 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1903-1913;  6 tons,  1914-1918. 


Plot  No.  32 

2- Year  Rotation:  Wheat,  Clover 


♦Manured  Annually. 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Clover 

5700 

1890 

Clover 

5100 

1891 

Clover 

5440 

1892 

Wheat 

22.58 

3670 

1893 

Clover 

5000 

1894 

Wheat 

37.92 

2885 

1895 

Clover 

5300 

1896 

Wheat 

34.33 

5340 

1897 

Clover 

3850 

1898 

Wheat . 

11.00 

2400 

1899 

Clover 

3500 

1900 

Wheat 

18.20 

2810 

1901 

Clover 

2480 

1902 

Clover ....... 

Omit 

ted. 

1903 

Wheat 

3.36 

2301 

1904 

1905 

Wheat 

Omitted. 

Omit 

ted. 

1906 

Wheat 

17.11 

2217 

1907 

Clover 

4030 

1908 

Wheat 

19.50 

2527 

1909 

Cowpeas 

3276 

1910 

Wheat 

Omit 

ted. 

1911 

Wheat 

22.27 

2798 

1912 

Cowpeas 

4810 

1913 

Wheat 

28.17 

4225 

Average  Wheat 

21.44 

3117 

Average  Clover 

4489 

Average  Cowpeas 

4043 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


40  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  No.  33 

2- Year  Rotation:  Wheat,  Clover 


No  Manure  or  Fertilizer. 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

23.67 

2270 

1890 

4600 

1891 

Wheat 

33.33 

5300 

1892 

3800 

1893 

Wheat 

8.33 

1780 

1894 

2 360 

1895 

Wheat 

34.67 

4880 

1896 

Clover 

1320 

1897 

Wheat 

12.50 

2250 

1898 

Clover 

3180 

1899 

Wheat 

2.70 

438 

1900 

Clover . . 

4320 

1901 

Wheat . . 

30.90 

3545 

1902 

1903 

Clover 

Omitted. 

1100 

1904 

Clover 

Omit 

t-d. 

1905 

Wheat 

9.96 

1290 

1906 

Cowpeas 

1950 

1907 

Wheat 

12.78 

1656 

1908 

Clover 

4278 

1909 

Wheat 

14.30 

1853 

1910 

Cowpeas 

5252 

1911 

Wheat 

16.90 

2528 

1912 

Cowpeas 

3250 

1913 

Wheat 

25.68 

2717 

1914 

Cowpeas 

6031 

1915 

Wheat 

11.66 

2156 

1916 

Cowpeas 

5684 

1917 

Wheat 

20.7 

1512 

1918 

Clover 

1512 

Average  Wheat 

18.4 

2405 

Average  Clover 

2974 

Average  Cowpeas 

4439 

Plot  No.  34 

4- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover 


*Manured  Annually. 


| 

Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Corn 

42.00 

3100 

1890 

Oats 

Omit 

ted. 

1891 

Clover 

3000 

1892 

Wheat 

9.33 

4200 

1893 

Corn 

23.71 

3940 

1894 

Oats 

41.25 

1900 

1895 

Clover 

4600 

1896 

Clover 



4600 

1897 

Corn 



58.60 

3060 

1898 

Oats 

4.10 

469 

1899 

Clover 

2600 

1900 

Wheat 

17.83 

3190 

1901 

Corn 

3.00 

88) 

1902 

1903 

Oats 

Omitted. 

6.20 

1300 

1904 

Wheat 

Omit 

ted. 

1905 

Corn 

75.02 

3172 

1906 

Oats 

34.12 

2730 

1907 

Clover 

5902 

1908 

Wheat 

16  10 

2287 

1909 

Corn 

36.40 

3C63 

1910 

Oats 

27.40 

2119 

1911 

Corn 

32.03 

4901 

1912 

Oats 

40.83 

2451 

1913 

Wheat 

28.33 

4215 

1914 

Cowpeas 

7033 

1915 

Corn . . . 

55.62 

4634 

1916 

Oats 

42.90 

2212 

1917 

Wheat 

39.4 

5726 

1918 

Clover 

4578 

Average  Corn 

40.8 

3344 

Average  Oats 

28.2 

1883 

Average  Wheat 

22.2 

3923 

Average  Clover 

4213 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913;  6 tons,  1914-1918. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations  41 


Plot  No.  35 

4- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover 


*Manured  Annually. 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

| 

Forage 

1889 

Oats 

28.44 

1975 

1890 

Clover 

3550 

1891 

Wheat 

19.58 

1825 

1892 

Corn 

40.00 

1100 

1893 

Oats 

29.38 

2350 

1894 

Clover 

4490 

1895 

Wehat 

35.83 

5050 

1896 

Corn 

60.86 

2340 

1897 

Oats 

37.50 

3300 

1898 

Clover 

4700 

1899 

Wheat 

24.30 

3020 

1900 

Corn 

42.10 

2000 

1901 

Oats 

3.00 

500 

1902 

Clover 

2000 

1903 

Corn 

Omit 

ted. 

1904 

Corn 

47.30 

1638 

1905 

Oats 

28.03 

2242 

1906 

Cowpeas 

1820 

1907 

Wheat 

17.44 

2260 

1908 

Corn 

48.50 

4400 

1909 

Oats 

16.25 

1300 

1910 

Clover 

1040 

1911 

Corn 

37.30 

5603 

1912 

Oats 

51.59 

2932 

1913 

Wheat 

25.13 

3751 

Average  Corn 

46.0 

2847 

Average  Oats 

27.7 

2085 

Average  Wheat 

24.4 

3181 

Average  Clover 

5028 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


Plot  No.  36 
Wheat  Continuously 


*Manured  Annually. 


Year  | 

Crop 

Yit 

Grain 

ild 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

23.00 

2070 

1890 

Wheat 

Omit 

ted. 

1891 

Wheat 

27.33 

4570 

1892 

Wheat 

29.83 

3870 

1893 

Wheat 

4.00 

860 

1894 

Wheat 

26.58 

1265 

1895 

Wheat 

33.00 

3320 

1896 

Wheat 

26.00 

2980 

1897 

Wheat 

14.67 

1820 

1898 

Wheat 

6.90 

2720 

1899 

Wheat 

18.20 

1790 

1900 

Wheat 

10.00 

1740 

1901 

Wheat 

27.20 

3320 

1902 

Wheat 

11.70 

5200 

1903 

Wheat 

Omit 

ted. 

1904 

! Wheat 

Omit 

ted. 

1905 

Wheat 

Omit 

ted. 

1906 

Wheat 

8.66 

1122 

1907 

Wheat 

24.80 

3214 

1908 

Wheat 

16.10 

2087 

1909 

Wheat 

21.90 

2858 

1910 

Wheat 

Omit 

ted. 

1911 

Wheat 

20.25 

1892 

1912 

Wheat 

9.96 

1386 

1913 

Wheat 

20.91 

3484 

Average  Wheat 

19.0 

2593 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


42  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182 


Plot  No.  37 

4-Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover 


^Manured  Annually. 


Yield 

• Yaar 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

3400 

1890 

5550 

1891 

Corn 

45.64 

2450 

1892 

Oats 

00.00 

0000 

1893 

Clover 

4620 

1894 

Wheat 

31.00 

3280 

1895 

Corn 

80.00 

4070 

1896 

1897 

Timothy 

Clover 

4250 

5300 

1898 

Wheat 

12.25 

2920 

1899 

Corn 

38.10 

1860 

1900 

Oats 

43.80 

2600 

1901 

Clover 

1580 

1902 

Corn 

80.70 

2850 

1903 

Corn 

69.08 

3029 

1904 

Oats 

19.91 

1593 

1905 

1906 

Omitted. 
Wheat 

11.48 

1488 

1907 

Corn 

63.88 

2587 

1908 

Oats 

30.06 

2405 

1909 

1910 

Cowpeas 

Wheat 

Omit 

2952 

ted. 

1911 

Corn 

31.80 

4784 

1942 

Oats 

53.82 

2886 

1913 

Wheat 

24.91 

4037 

Average  Corn 

58.4 

3090 

Average  Oats 

29.5 

1897 

Average  Wheat 

19.9 

2931 

Average  Clover 

4e90 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually,  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


Plot  No.  38 

4-Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover 


*Manured  Annually. 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

26.92 

2370 

1890 

Corn 

50.93 

2800 

1891 

Oats 

29.69 

1150 

1892 

Clover 

4200 

1893 

Wheat 

15.17 

2510 

1894 

Corn 

34.00 

3580 

1895 

Oats 

40.63 

2340 

1896 

Clover 

6000 

1897 

Wheat 

37.33 

4460 

1898 

Corn 

31.70 

1600 

1899 

Oats 

32.20 

2250 

1900 

Clover 

2960 

1901 

Wheat 

37.20 

4410 

1902 

Corn 

78 . 50j 

2700 

1903 

Omitted. 

1904 

Clover 

Omit 

ted. 

1905 

Wheat. 

31.81 

4123 

1906 

Corn 

* Omit 

ted. 

1907 

Oats 

37.78 

3022 

1908 

Clover 

7254 

1909 

Wheat 

15.70 

2035 

1910 

Cowpeas 

7242 

1911 

Corn 

33.80 

6559 

1912 

Oats 

14.42 

1495 

1913 

Wheat 

27.79 

4807 

Average  Corn 

45.8 

3448 

Average  Oats 

30.9 

2051 

Average  Wheat 

27.4 

3531 

Average  Clover 

5103 

* 6 tons  manure  per  acre  annually  1889- 
1903;  7.8  tons,  1904-1913. 


Thirty  Years  of  Experiments  With  Crop  Rotations 


43 


Plot  No.  39 

4- Year  Rotation:  Corn,  Oats, 

Wheat,  Clover 

No  Manure  or  Fertilizer. 


Yield 

Year 

Crop 

Grain 

Forage 

1889 

Wheat 

25.83 

2460 

1890 

Corn 

35.29 

2390 

1891 

Oats 

21.57 

1090 

1892 

Clover 

3400 

1893 

Wheat 

14.00 

2960 

1894 

Ccrn 

34.29 

3120 

1895 

Oats 

31.56 

1250 

1896 

Clover 

2760 

1897 

Wheat 

28.67 

3380 

1898 

Corn 

28.20 

1600 

1899 

Oats 

26.30 

1580 

1900 

Clover 

2300 

1901 

Wheat 

34.00 

4480 

1902 

1903 

1904 

Corn 

Omitted. 

Omitted. 

54.00 

2900 

1905 

Wheat 

20.80 

2696 

1906 

Corn 

Omit 

ted. 

1907 

Oats 

26.81 

2145 

1908 

Clover 

2163 

1909 

Wheat 

21.70 

2812 

1910 

Cowpeas 

6162 

1911 

Corn 

29.90 

2899 

1912 

Oats 

30.27 

2080 

1913 

Wheat 

13.76 

4011 

1914 

Cowpeas 

5239 

1915 

Corn 

49.60 

4732 

1916 

Oats 

30.60 

1456 

1917 

Wheat 

30.00 

3710 

1918 

Clover 

2450 

Average  Corn 

38.5 

2940 

Average  Oats 

27.9 

1600 

Average  Wheat 

23.6 

3314 

Average  Clover 

2615 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  183 


CROP  ROTATIONS  FOR 
MISSOURI  SOILS 


A good  rotation  for  the  better  soils  of  Missouri. 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
MAY.  1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL, 

the:  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 


agricultural 


STATION  STAFF 

MAY,  1921 

CHEMISTRY 


RURAL  LIFE 


O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 
S.  D.  Gromer,  A.  M. 


C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

VV.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.2 
R.  M.  Smith  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedmann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  SiEvEking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  F.  Ahmann,  A.  B. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B .S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Barnard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  EdingEr,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale.  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Samuel  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S^  in  Agr. 

D.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

O.  C.  McBride, 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  M.  King,  B.  S-  in  Agr. 


R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

Ben  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson.  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crtsler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 

R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S.,  Sercretary 

S.  B.  Shirkey,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Director 
A.  A.  Jeffrey,  A.  B.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 

Miss  Bertha  Hite,1  Seed  Testing  Lab- 
oratory. 


’In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
2On  leave  of  absen  e 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 

R.  R.  Hudelson  and  C.  A.  Helm 

The  term  crop  rotation  means  that  different  kinds  of  crops  follow  one 
another  in  a regular  order  for  a definite  period  of  years. 

Field  experiments  extending  over  30  years  and  comparing  the  values  of 
different  rotations  have  been  conducted  by  the  Missouri  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. Continuous  growing  of  corn  and  other  common  crops  on  the  same 
land  has  been  tested  also.  All  crops  have  been  grown  both  with  and  with- 
out manure.  From  the  records  of  these  experiments  some  interesting  re- 
sults are  here  presented  as  to  the  effects  of  different  cropping  systems  on 
the  yields  after  a period  of  30  years.  The  year  1919  was  the  thirty-first 
year  and  the  following  table  shows  the  yields  of  plots  which  were  in  corn 
that  season.  The  season  of  1919  is  selected  because  it  is  the  most  recent 
year  when  the  four-year  rotation  plots  were  cropped  with  corn. 

Yields  oe  Corn  on  Rotation  Field  at  Columbia. 


Cropping  system  and  soil  treatment  Yields  in  bu.  per 

acre  31st  year,  1919. 

Continuous  corn,  no  treatment  19.6 

Continuous  corn,  manured  39.1 

Corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  rotation,  no  treatment  52.5 

Corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  rotation,  manured  60.1 


These  results  show  the  high  value  of  rotation  in  maintaining  the  yield 
of  corn.  Corn  in  rotation  is  shown  to  yield  twice  as  much  as  where  grown 
continuously.  With  twice  the  yield  and  little  increase  in  cost  of  produc- 
tion the  profits  are  several  times  as  great.  Based  on  1919  yields,  one  crop 
of  corn  in  the  rotation  series  is  more  valuable  than  three  crops  of  corn 
produced  on  continuous  cropped  plots.  It  is  the  margin  above  cost  which 
counts. 

The  other  crops  of  the  rotation  are  affected  almost  if  not  quite  as  much 
as  corn.  The  following  table  shows  the  yields  of  wheat  from  the  same 
plots  in  1917,  which  was  the  most  recent  year  when  these  plots  were  cropped 
with  wheat. 


Yields  oe  Wheat  on  Rotation  Field  at  Columbia. 


Cropping  system  and  soil  treatment  Yields  in  bu.  per 

acre  29th  year,  1917. 


Continuous  wheat,  no  treatment  <■ 0.2 

Continuous  wheat,  manured  10.9 

Corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  rotation,  no  treatment  30.0 

Corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  rotation,  manured  39.4 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


From  these  records  it  is  evident  that  rotations  may  make  all  the  dif- 
ference between  a total  failure  of  the  wheat  crop  and  a very  satisfactory 
yield  when  the  cropping  system  is  continued  through  long  periods  of  time. 
The  plot  growing  continuous  wheat  with  no  manure  or  fertilizer  does  not 
give  so  complete  a failure  every  year  but  the  wheat  is  so  weakened  by  lack 
of  fertility  and  other  unfavorable  conditions  that  it  is  often  badly  winter- 
killed.  Here  again  it  should  be  noted  that  increased  yields  due  to  rotation 
are  secured  practically  without  increase  in  cost.  While  harvest  and  market- 
ing costs  will  increase  slightly  with  higher  yields  from  crop  rotation,  this 
is  offset  through  a better  seasonal  distribution  of  the  labor  secured  from 
growing  a variety  of  crops. 

Corn  is  probably  the  best  crop  with  which  to  measure  fertility,  since 
it  seldom  fails  completely  through  attacks  of  insects  or  from  bad  weather 

conditions.  The  effects  of  40  years’ 
work  with  crop  rotations  are  well 
represented  in  Figure  1,  giving  the 
30-year  average  yields  of  corn  un- 
der different  cropping  systems. 
From  this  plate  it  is  evident  that, 
on  the  average,  the  yield  is  increas- 
ed by  lengthening  the  period  be- 
tween corn  crops.  The  one  plot 
which  is  shown  to  have  received 
manure  was  manured  at  the  rate  of 
six  tons  an  acre  every  year  for  30 
years.  While  the  use  of  6 tons  of 
manure  per  acre  each  year  is  too 
heavy  for  ordinary  practice  it 
shows  that  corn  yields  cannot  be 
maintained  at  a high  level  by  man- 
ure applications  alone.  As  shown 
by  Figure  1 a three-year  rotation 
without  manure  or  fertilizer  was 
almost  as  effective,  and  the  four- 
and  six-year  rotations  were  more 
effective  in  keeping  up  the  yield  of 
corn  than  was  heavy  manuring 
where  corn  was  grown  every  year.  On  the  average,  therefore,  rotation  is 
more  effective  than  heavy  manuring  in  maintaining  corn  yields.  Considering 
all  of  the  crops  grown  on  Rotation  Field  at  the  Missouri  Station,  the  four- 
year  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  clover  was  more  effective  in  keeping 
up  yields  than  any  of  the  other  rotations  used. 

This  evidence  seems  conclusive  on  the  value  of  rotation  for  keeping 
up  crop  yields.  If  not,  there  is  much  other  evidence  in  the  experience  of 
successful  farmers  of  this  and  other  countries,  particularly  in  the  older 
countries  of  Europe  and  Asia. 


Fig.  1 — Thirty-year  average  yields  of  corn  un- 
der different  rotations. 


It  should  not  be  concluded,  however,  that  crop  rotation  will  absolutely 
maintain  yields.  It  is  found  in  our  oldest  experiments  with  crop  rotation 
that  after  a period  of  years,  even  under  good  rotations,  crop  yields  gradu- 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


5 


ally  but  surely  run  down  if  all  crops  are  removed  and  no  manure  or  fer- 
tilizers are  used.  Proper  rotation,  including  legumes  and  careful  handling 
of  manure,  will  keep  up  the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  in  soils,  but  other 
factors  such  as  the  supply  of  lime  and  phosphorus  must  be  taken  care  of. 
It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  publication  to  treat  these  latter  factors.* 

EFFECT  OF  CROP  ROTATION  ON  THE  SOIL 

At  the  end  of  25  years  of  cropping  on  the  Rotation  Field  at  Columbia 
all  plots  were  carefully  sampled  and  the  soil  analyzed.  Little  difference 
was  found  in  the  amounts  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  in  the  soil  of  dif- 
ferent plots.  Very  significant  differences  were  found,  however,  in  the  nitro- 
gen supply  of  soils  that  had  been  handled  with  different  cropping  systems 


for  a quarter  of  a century.  The  results  of  these  analyses  are  shown  in  the 
diagram  (Figure  2).  A study  of  this  chart  shows  how  the  common  field 
crops  vary  in  their  effects  upon  soil  nitrogen.  The  soil  nitrogen  is  practi- 
cally all  in  the  organic  matter  and  the  chart  therefore  indicates  the  relative 
amounts  of  organic  matter  remaining  in  the  soil. 

Corn,  the  only  cultivated  crop  included,  is  much  the  most  exhaustive 
of  soil  nitrogen.  This  is  due  mainly  to  two  causes.  Corn  is  a gross'  feeder 

•Write  for  circular  No.  102  on  “Keeping  Soils  Productive.” 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


and  uses  much  nitrogen;  but  even  more  important  is  the  fact  that  corn 
ground  lies  bare  throughout  the  season  giving  every  opportunity  for  leach- 
ing and  washing.  The  process  of  cultivation  also  hastens  decomposition 
of  the  organic  matter.  It  does  this  by  repeatedly  turning  the  soil  over, 
stirring  air  into  it  and  thus  hastening  oxidation  or  decomposition. 

Wheat  and  oats  are  much  alike  in  their  drain  on  the  soil  nitrogen, 
being  cultivated  only  when  seeded.  Wheat  plots  are  shown  to  contain  a 
little  more  nitrogen  than  oats  plots,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
winter  wheat  partly  covers  the  ground  during  the  winter  and  gives  less 
chance  for  the  leaching  away  of  plant  food.  Plant  food  as  it  becomes 
available  is  taken  up  by  the  growing  wheat,  part  of  it  remaining  in  the  root 
system  and  eventually  being  returned  to  the  soil.  Another  factor  to  con- 
sider is  the  low  yield  of  oats  removed  from  these  plots. 

It  was  found  impossible  to  grow  clover  continuously  for  25  years, 
but  timothy  was  quite  successful.  When  the  soil  was  analyzed  timothy 
plots  showed  the  highest  amount  of  nitrogen  of  any  of  the  continuous  crop 
plots.  It  is  constantly  in  sod,  thus  reducing  the  loss  of  nitrogen,  by  leaching 
erosion  and  cultivation.  Practically  all  of  the  plant  food  in  timothy  sod  is 
that  taken  off  in  the  crop.  Surface  washing  is  prevented  by  the  sod  absorb- 
ing nearly  all  of  the  rainfall  or  at  least  checking  the  surface  runoff  until  it 
runs  so  slowly  as  not  to  carry  away  the  surface  soil.  It  is  also  true  that 
the  sod  is  always  on  the  ground  and  living  plants  take  up  plant  food  ele- 
ments as  quickly  as  they  become  available. 

When  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  two,  three,  four,  and  six-year  ro- 
tation plots  is  averaged  the  nitrogen  supply  is  found  to  be  higher  than 
that  in  any  but  the  continuous  sod  plots.  This  is  to  be  expected  since  the 
sod  crop  tends  to  keep  up  the  nitrogen,  but  cultivated  and  small  grain  crops 
tend  to  run  it  down.  The  rotation  plots  therefore  occupy  an  intermediate 
position.  Some  sod  crop  should  occur  in  practically  every  corn  belt  rota- 
tion. 


CROP  ROTATION  DISTRIBUTES  LABOR  AND  INCOME 

The  effects  of  crop  rotation  in  keeping  up  soil  fertility  and  crop  yields 
are  not  its  only  benefits.  It  is  well  known  that  one  source  of  the  farmer’s 
trouble  in  keeping  competent  help  is  his  inability  to  make  profitable  use 
of  the  same  amount  of  help  throughout  the  year.  Transient  help  is  always 
unsatisfactory. 

The  use  of  a variety  of  crops  in  a rotation  helps  materially  in  dis- 
tributing labor  evenly  over  the  year.  Plowing  and  preparing  wheat  ground 
comes  at  a period  when  other  crops  need  little  attention.  Wheat  seeding 
also  comes  at  a comparatively  slack  period. 

Oats  ground  is  prepared  and  oats  are  seeded  before  the  corn  planting 
season  is  on.  Wheat,  oats  and  rye  harvests  usually  come  at  slightly  dif- 
ferent periods,  though  in  close  succession.  Their  harvest  comes  late  enough 
that  in  average  years  corn  cultivation  is  well  in  hand. 

A certain  labor  advantage  is  to  be  secured  from  following  clover  or 
grass  sod  with  corn.  Corn  following  sod  allows  for  a greater  period  over 
which  ground  can  be  plowed  and  prepared.  Sod  land  can  also  be  worked  when 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


7 


wet  with  less  injury  than  land  which  has  been  under  cultivation.  As  a rule 
sod  land  requires  less  cultivation  and  labor  to  keep  the  corn  free  of  weeds. 
Continuously  cultivated  land  is  usually  more  foul  with  bad  corn  weeds. 

OTHER  BENEFITS  OF  ROTATION 

Many  other  advantages  of  crop  rotation  may  be  listed.  Weed  control 
is  most  practical  under  rotative  cropping  systems.  Buckhorn,  major  plantain, 
whitetop,  yarrow  and  wild  carrot  are  quite  common  in  continuous  grass 
land.  Crab  grass,  yellow  and  green  foxtail,  cocklebur,  bull  nettle  and  morn- 
ing glory  are  very  troublesome  weeds  in  cultivated  and  small  grain  crops. 
These  weeds  can  most  easily  be  held  in  check  by  the  systematic  alternating 
of  cultivated,  small  grain  and  sod  crops.  Continuous  sod  also  often  reaches 
a sod-bound  condition,  thus  lowering  its  production  due  to  factors  other 
than  soil  fertility. 

One  of  the  most  effective  means  of  control  of  plant  diseases  and  in- 
sect attack  is  through  crop  rotation.  Corn  smut  is  carried  over  to  the 
next  season  through  crop  residue  left  on  the  land.  Wireworms  and  cut- 
worms are  more  plentiful  on  land  which  has  been  left  in  sod  over  long 
periods. 

Another  benefit  of  systematic  rotation  is  that  the  farm  will  thus  pro- 
duce a variety  of  products  available  at  different  periods  during  the  grow- 
ing season.  A one-crop  system  may  throw  its  entire  product  on  a high 
or  low  market  and  thus  return  either  a profit  or  a loss.  Again  under  a one- 
crop  system,  a crop  failure  results  in  extremely  hard  times  for  the  year. 
A variety  of  crops,  on  the  other  hand,  helps  to  equalize  losses  on  the 
year’s  production.  A season  is  seldom  equally  bad  on  all  crops.  On  the 
other  hand,  history  shows  that  only  in  rare  seasons  are  corn,  oats  and  wheat 
equally  favored.  A large  corn  crop  often  follows  a fair  to  poor  wheat 
crop. 

ROTATION  IS  BECOMING  MORE  COMMON 

The  farmers  of  the  central  states  have  been  slow  to  adopt  crop  rota- 
tion for  several  reasons.  In  the  beginning  soils  were  fertile  and  good 
crops  have  been  possible  without  much  attention  to  methods  of  soil  main- 
tenance or  improvement.  Agricultural  practice  is  still  new  in  this  country 
and  it  has  not  been  necessary  to  give  much  thought  to  the  use  of  improved 
methods.  Older  countries  such  as  those  of  Europe  have  found  it  not  only 
advantageous  but  practically  necessary  to  adopt  such  measures  as  crop  ro- 
tation. Farming  in  the  central  west  has  been  of  the  extensive  type  in  which 
large  acreages  of  the  most  profitable  crops  are  grown. 

This  condition  is  rapidly  changing.  Even  our  best  soils  are  found  to 
lose  some  of  their  native  productiveness  under  careless  or  unsystematic 
methods.  Gradually  it  is  being  learned  that  some  attention  to  soil  main- 
tenance is  necessary.  Some  evidence  of  this  change  in  attitude  is  seen  in 
the  decreasing  numbers  of  farmers  who  burn  their  corn  stalks  and  their 
straw.  One  of  the  cheapest  means  of  improving  soil  management  is  the 
adoption  of  a suitable  rrnn  rotation 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


CROPS  TO  BE  INCLUDED  IN  A ROTATION 

If  it  is  decided  to  adopt  a rotation  certain  principles  should  be  followed. 
In  the  discussion  of  30  years  of  field  experiments  at  Columbia  it  was  shown 
that  crops  fall  into  different  classes  with  respect  to  their  effects  upon  the 
soil.  These  groups  are  known  as  cultivated  crops,  small  grains  and  sod 
crops. 

The  cultivated  crops  are,  for  average  conditions,  nearly  as  funda- 
mental as  sod  crops.  They  hold  in  check  certain  weeds  which  give  much 
trouble  in  land  left  to  sod  for  any  great  length  of  time.  While  cultivated 
crops  are  exhaustive  upon  soil  fertility,  at  the  same  time  they  are  among 
the  principal  money  crops.  Corn,  sorghum,  and  soybeans  comprise  the 
bulk  of  cultivated  crops,  grown  in  this  State. 

Among  the  second  group  oats,  wheat,  and  rye  are  the  principal  crops. 
When  land  begins  to  fail,  after  a year  or  two  of  corn  growing,  one  or  more 


Fig.  2. — (Left)  Corn  in  four-year  rotation,  55  bushels.  (Right)  Corn  every  year,  38 
bushels.  Both  plots  manured  at  same  rate. 


of  these  crops  would  logically  follow.  Wheat  and  rye  are  the  best  nurse 
crops  for  clover  or  grass.  They  also,  being  fall  sown,  will  serve  as  a cov- 
er crop  to  prevent  winter  leaching  and  erosion.  When  these  crops  are  fol- 
lowed with  sod  crops  the  land  is  kept  covered  at  all  times  until  again  brok- 
en out  for  corn,  or  other  cultivated  crop. 

The  reasons  for  using  wheat  or  rye  as  a nurse  crop  for  sod  crops  are 
two-fold.  A nurse  crop  keeps  weed  growth  under  control,  thus  preventing 
the  smothering  out  of  the  plants  during  their  early  period  of  growth.  The 
second  and  most  important  value  is  in  seeding  land  to  grass  or  clover  with 
no  loss  of  time.  On  the  better  soils  and  in  occasional  years  some  returns 
are  secured  the  same  season  following  the  grain  harvest 

Sod  crops,  as  a group,  are  the  most  important  of  all  from  a soil  saving 
.^.11  building  point  of  view.  They  include:  clovers,  alfalfa,  timothy  and 
pa. Line  grasses.  These  crops  cover  the  ground  through  the  winter,  reduce 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


9 


soil  washing  and  fill  the  soil  with  masses  of  roots  which  later  decompose  and 
increase  the  supply  of  organic  matter.  This  greatly  improves  the  soil  tilth. 
If  the  sod  crop  is  also  a legume  it  has  the  double  advantage  of  adding  to  the 
supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  provided  of  course,  that  this  nitrogen  is  not 
all  removed  by  selling  the  legume  crop  as  hay.  There  are  various  legumes 
which  do  not  belong  to  the  class  of  sod  crops  but  which  have  a value  as 
nitrogen  building  crops.  In  this  group  are  soybeans,  cowpeas  and  Canada 
field  peas.  They  are  not  so  beneficial  as  clover  and  alfalfa  which  belong  to 
both  the  legume  and  the  sod  forming  classes. 

The  well  known  ability  of  legumes  as  nitrogen  builders  is  of  course 
due  to  the  bacteria  which  they  harbor  in  nodules  on  their  roots.  Some- 
times these  are  lacking  and  must  be  supplied  by  means  of  inoculation.  This 
is  only  in  case  of  legumes  which  are  new  to  a particular  field  or  which 
show  by  the  absence  of  root  nodules  that  the  bacteria  are  lacking.  It  is 


fin  Actual  Central  Missouri  Farm  of  160  Feres 


fis  Arranged  Before  Using  a Rotation 


and  As  Arranged  After  Adopting  a Rotation 


Isf  yr  Corn 

Oa  is 

Wheal 

Clover 

2nd  y rOats 

Wheat 

Clover 

Corn 

3rd  yr  W heal 

Clever 

Corn 

Oats— 

4//?  yr  Clover 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Fig.  4. — Laying  out  a larm  to  facilitate  crop  rotation. 


highly  important  that  the  farmer  provide  inoculation  if  the  soil  is  not  in- 
oculated. It  can  be  done  at  little  cost  and  is  too  important  a matter  to 
neglect. 

Any  rotation  to  be  satisfactory  must  include  at  least  one  legume.  Gen- 
erally it  should  contain  one  or  more  sod  crops  as  well  as  a cultivated  crop 
which  serves  to  keep  the  soil  clean.  On  soils  that  are  rolling  or  occupy 
steep  slopes,  sod  crops  are  more  imperative  because  they  are  efifective  in 
the  prevention  of  soil  washing  or  erosion. 

From  a business  point  of  view  crops  are  sometimes  classified  as  cash 
crops,  feed  crops,  and  green  manure  crops.  Cash  crops  are  grown  for  sale 
as  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  income.  Wheat  or  potatoes  are  usually 
classified  in  this  group,  while  corn,  soybean  seed  and  clover  seed  may  be 
so  used.  Hay  is  usually  classified  as  a feed  crop  to  be  fed  on  the  farm, 
and  corn  and  oats  are  frequently  fed. 

A green  manure  crop  is  one  grown  solely  for  soil  enrichment.  It  is 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


therefore  not  harvested  but  is  plowed  under.  Such  a use  of  crops  is  not 
at  all  common  because  producing  u crop  for  manure  only  is  expensive 
since  the  cost  of  seed,  work  and  rental  must  be  charged  against  it.  It  is  only 
justified  in  special  cases  such  as  growing  a catch  crop  of  cowpeas  after 
wheat,  a practice  common  in  southeast  Missouri,  or  rye  grown  during  fall 
and  winter  to  plow  down  before  a summer  crop,  or  cover  crops  grown  in 
orchards  or  the  second  crop  of  clover.  The  use  of  green  manure  in  such 
cases  is  a quick  means  of  increasing  the  organic  matter  in  soils  as  it  re- 
turns much  more  organic  matter  than  if  the  crop  is  fed  and  the  manure  re- 
turned. Where  the  green  manure  crop  is  a legume,  much  nitrogen  may 
thus  be  added.  It  is  usually  better  however,  to  grow  a greater  abundance 
of  feed  crops  to  balance  the  loss  in  feeding  and  gain  the  profit  of  feeding 
as  well  as  the  manure  for  soil  enrichment. 


METHOD  OF  HANDLING  A CROP  ROTATION 

There  are  numerous  difficulties  involved  in  establishing  and  maintain- 
ing a crop  rotation.  The  fields  on  a particular  farm  are  often  not  laid  out 
so  as  to  fit  a rotation.  Land  varies}  in  its  adaptation  to  clover;  wheat  may 
winter  kill.  Also  the  market  may  become  very  unfavorable  to  growing  a 
particular  crop. 

In  nearly  every  community  of  progressive  farmers  some  will  be  found 
who  have  surmounted  these  difficulties.  Their  methods  should  be  studied 
with  a view  to  making  crop  rotation  more  successful. 

It  is  practically  necessary  that  the  number  and  size  of  fields  be  adjusted 
or  the  crops  selected  so  that  there  will  be  as  many  fields  as  there  are  years 
in  the  rotation.  Where  there  are  a large  number  of  small  fields  they  may 
be  combined  into  groups,  cropping  each  group  as  one  field.  These  fields, 
or  groups  of  fields,  should  be  approximately  equal  in  area,  in  order  to  give 
a steady  supply  of  each  crop,  omitting  seasonal  variations  which  cannot 
be  prevented.  This  is  easy  on  level  farms  where  all  the  land  is  tillable, 
but  on  farms  which  are  cut  up  by  ravines,  steep  slopes,  bottoms  or  wood- 
lands, it  usually  requires  some  ingenuity  and  a close  study  of  the  farm’s 
possibilities.  Fortunately  in  the  better  farming  areas  such  cases  are  few. 
There  are  exceptional  cases  also  where  a bottom  field  has  its  soil  annually 
renewed  by  overflow  and  which  is  suited  best  to  almost  constant  cropping 
with  corn.  A very  high  percentage  of  farms  can  and  should  be  arranged 
for  systematic  crop  rotation. 

The  accompanying  diagrams  show  how  farms  on  which  there  is  con- 
siderable rough  land  may  be  arranged  to  accommodate  different  rotations. 

Each  farm  is  an  individual  problem  so  far  as  its  arrangement  of  fields 
is  concerned.  It  is  usually  not  practicable  to  move  all  fences  at  once  and 
completely  reorganize  a badly  arranged  farm.  A suitable  plan  of  arrange- 
ment should  be  studied  out,  however,  and  adopted  as  rapidly  as  possible 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


11 


Plan  for  160  acre  farm  that  is  all  tillable  and  nearly  level. 


Buildings, 

Lots,  Orchards, 
etc  5 Acres. 

Field  H 

Feld  B 

FeldC 

Field  D 

1st  i^r  Corn 

Oats  or 
Soybeans 

Wheat 

Clover  and 
Timothy 

2n Ayr  Oafs 
or  Soybeans 

Wheat 

Clover  and 
Timothy 

Corn 

3rd  i jr  Wheat 

Clover  and 
Timothy 

Corn 

Oats  o ~ 
Soybeans 

4thyr  Clover 
and  Timothy 

Corn 

Oats  or 
Soybeans 

Wheat 

Rotation  plan  fora  160  acre  dairy  farm  with  a major  and 
a minor  rotation.  Fields  fl,  B,  and  C for  major  rotation 
of  corn,  oats,  and  clover  Felds  D,E,Fand  G for  minor 
rotation  of  forage  crops  as  indicated. 


Building 
and  Lots 

Field  D 8 Acres 
Oats  and  peas  in  earlu 
Spring.  Followed  by  coupeas. 
and  seeded  to  rye  in  fall 

Field  A 40  acres 
Istyr  Corn 
2nd.yr  Oats 
3rd.yr  Clover 

Repeat  after  1923 

Field  E 10  /teres. 

Rue  for  winter  and  early  spring 
feed.  Followed  by  soybeans 

Field  F 10/tcre s. 

Corn  with  soybeans  to  be  pastured 
by  hogs  or  used  for  silage- 

Field  G 10 Acres. 

Alfalfa  to  be  left  for  6 years,  and 
then  shifted  to  Field  D 

F. 

i eld  C 40  acres 

Field  B 40 acres 

1st.  ur 

C 1 over 

Istyr  Oats 

2ndyr  Corn 

2ndyr  Clover 

3rd  yr  Oats 

3rd.  yr  Corn 

Repeat  alter  1923 

Repeat  after  192 3 

Fig.  5. — Rotation  plan  for  level  land. 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


Rotation  plan  for  farm  on  which  there  is 
much  rouqh  land 


Buildings 

and 

Lots 

Garden  and  Fruit 
5‘/zA 

Corn  1st.  yr 

Hoa  Pasture 
y/iA. 

Oats  2ndyr 
Wheat  3rd  yr 
Chover^th  yr 

F \e!d /!.  Z5A 

Horse  Pasture 

3]f2/t. 

Oats  1st  yr 
Wheat  2nd  yr 
Clover  3rd  yr 
Corn  4th.yr. 

Field  B.  Z5A 

ft 

Jt 

brmanent  \ 
asture  ^ 

A 

v Wheat  Ist.yr 

Clover  2n d.yrf 
Corn  3rdyr 

^S-'V  AiL 

Clover  1st.  yr 

. Field C 26 A 

Corn  2ndyr  ^ 

Field  plan  of  an  actual  farm  in  the  OzarK 
Border  country  with  a rotation  suitable  to 
a combination  bottom  and  upland  farm 


Fig.  6. — Rotation  plan  for  rough  land. 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


13 


SEQUENCE  OF  CROPS 

Following  the  principles  which  have  been  laid  down,  each  farmer  should 
select  the  crops  best  suited  to  the  type  of  farming  which  he  desires  to 
follow.  These  should  then  be  arranged  to  follow  each  other  in  proper  or- 
der to  get  the  best  results  with  the  least  expenditure  of  labor. 

Oats  are  grown  in  Missouri  mainly  because  of  their  low  labor  costs 
and  in  that  they  pave  the  way  for  wheat  or  grass.  It  is  not  the  common 
practice  to  plow  ground  for  oats.  The  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  and  time 
of  seeding  come  at  a period  before  corn  planting. 

In  cropping  systems  following  corn  with  oats  and  wheat  in  the  order 
named,  ground  is  usually  plowed  before  corn  and  after  oats.  Except  in 
the  northern  one-fourth  of  the  State  oats  are  not,  as  a rule,  a paying  crop. 

Soybeans  work  well  in  a cropping  system,  replacing  oats.  They  may 
replace  the  oats  crop  entirely  or  only  in  part  as  best  suited  to  the  individual 
farm.  Where  soybeans  are  thus  used  no  more  plowings  are  required  than 
for  oats.  Ground  is  plowed  before  corn  and  again  before  soybeans.  Wheat 
is  seeded  on  the  soybean  stubble  without  plowing.  On  average  land  where 
both  clean  and  level  cultivation  of  soybeans  is  practiced,  an  ideal  seed  bed 
is  automatically  prepared  for  wheat.  Double  disking  and  harrowing  soy- 
bean stubble  is  the  only  preparation  required. 

The  most  common  cultivated  crop  is  corn  and  it  will  have  a place  in 
nearly  all  of  the  rotations  selected  by  Missouri  farmers,  but  in  special  lo- 
cations soybeans  may  be  the  cultivated  crop. 

The  cultivated  crop  leaves  a good  seed  bed  for  a small  grain  crop. 
Often  two  crops  of  small  grain  are  grown  in  succession. 

The  small  grain  offers  suitable  conditions  for  seeding  grasses.  Timothy 
is  often  seeded  in  wheat  or  rye  in  the  fall,  while  seeding  the  wheat,  or  seed- 
ed with  clover  in  the  spring  on  the  same  field.  This  gives  two  chances 
for  a successful  stand  of  hay.  If  both  succeed,  the  clover  makes  up  the 
bulk  of  the  first  year’s  hay  crop,  but  timothy  largely  replaces  it  in  the 
second  and  succeeding  crops.  After  one  to  three  seasons  the  sod  is  plowed 
and  again  prepared  for  the  corn  or  other  cultivated  crop. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  maintaining  a regular  order  of  cropping 
is  the  failure  of  certain  crops  of  the  rotation.  It  is  a rather  common  prac- 
tice to  replace  any  unsuccessful  crop  with  corn  and  start  a new  round 
of  the  rotation,  but  this  gives  a larger  acreage  of  corn  than  is  beneficial  to 
the  soil  and  starts  two  fields  at  the  same  point  in  the  rotation  thus  break- 
ing up  the  system.  These  crop  failures  should  be  provided  for  in  the  plan 
by  substituting  a similar  crop  for  one  that  fails.  If  wheat  winter  kills  oats 
may  be  substituted.  If  clover  fails  when  seeded  with  timothy  the  latter 
crop  may  be  left  as  the  sod  crop.  If  clover  fails  when  seeded  alone  or  if 
clover  and  timothy  both  fail,  the  next  best  possibility  is  the  substitution 
of  a legume  crop  usually  soybeans  or  cowpeas.  Such  a plan  does  not  dis- 
arrange the  rotation.  Good  farming  will  prevent  many  crop  failures,  but 
when  unavoidable  failures  come  the  field  should  be  brought  around  to 
bearing  its  proper  crop  in  the  prearranged  plan  as  soon  as  possible.  The 
use  of  lime  and  phosphates  will  reduce  the  number  of  clover  failures. 

Many  farmers  do  not  attempt  to  follow  any  regular  systematic  rota- 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 

tion  but  change  from  one  crop  to  another  as  their  immediate  judgment 
dictates.  This  method  loses  some  of  the  advantages  of  a more  farsighted 
plan,  however,  because  the  proportion  of  legume  and  sod  crops  is  often 
not  kept  clearly  in  mind  and  there  is  always  a temptation  to  choose  more 
corn  or  other  soil  wasting  crops  because  the  immediate  profit  is  frequently 
greater.  The  excessive  use  of  grain  crops  although  likely  to  swell  the  im- 
mediate gains  is  at  the  expense  of  soil  fertility  and  eventually  tells  in  re- 
duced yields.  Without  a prearranged  plan  most  farm  operators  will  not 
always  follow  their  own  best  farsighted  judgment. 


Lack  of  any  cropping  system  is  most  common  on  rented  farms  because 
the  man  who  rents  on  the  usual  short  time  lease  cannot  be  expected  to 
have  any  interest  in  the  farm  beyond  the  term  of  his  own  contract.  He 

ordinarily  puts  in  a larger  proportion  of  grain  crops  than  is  justified  on 

the  best  of  soils  because  this  serves  his  immediate  purpose  best  and  he 
has  no  other  interest  in  the  particular  farm.  The  landowner  and  not  the 
tenant  is  to  blame.  Many  landowners  attempt  to  protect  their  soil  by 
stating  the  amount  of  grass  to  be  sown  each  year,  but  this  is  often  done 
in  a half-hearted  manner  and  is  not  sufficient  protection.  Often  the  land- 
owner,  in  his  desire  for  immediate  profits  is  as  shortsighted  as  the  short- 
time  tenant.  If  he  really  desires  to  protect  his  property,  however,  the 
lease  should  be  so  exact  as  to  specify  the  cropping  system  to  be  followed 

on  each  field  each  season.  It  is  possible  to  include  a diagram  of  the  farm 

on  which  each  field  is  represented  and  the  crop  to  be  grown  each  year  is 
specified.  In  the  long  run  this  would  benefit  both  tenant  and  owner. 

ROTATIONS  FOR  THE  BEST  MISSOURI  UPLANDS 

The  chief  area  included  in  this  group  is  the  large  district  of  rolling 
black  prairie  soils  in  northwest  Missouri.  The  more  level  and  better  areas 
in  the  north  central  part  of  the  state  are  also  included  as  well  as  the  black 
prairie  soils  lying  east  and  south  of  Kansas  City. 

These  are  districts  of  fertile  soils  and  extensive  farming.  The  very 
fertility  of  their  soils  has  often  operated  against  the  soil  saving  practice  of 
systematic  crop  rotation.  To  preserve  their  present  standing  in  crop  pro- 
duction, however,  much  more  attention  must  be  given  to  soil  maintenance. 
No  soil  is  so  good  that  it  will  maintain  itself  against  the  ravages  of  care- 
less cropping. 


CROP  ROTATION  ON  RENTED  FARMS 


Partial  List  of  Crops  Suited  to  the  Best  Uplands. 


Cultivated  Crops 


Sod  Crops 


Soybeans 

Potatoes 

Tobacco 

Sorghum 


Corn 


Red  clover 
Alsike  clover 
Alfalfa 
Timothy 
Bluegrass 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


15 


Small  Grains 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley- 

Rye 


Annual  Legumes  not  Included  in  Sod 
Crops 

Soybeans 

Cowpeas 

Canada  Field  Peas 


These  crops  may  be  combined  in  rotations  to  suit  various  types  of  farm- 
ing such  as  dairy,  livestock,  grain,  or  mixed  farming.  They  should  be 
combined  according  to  the  principles  previously  set  forth.  Where  oats  are 
included  before  wheat  in  these  rotations  soybeans  may  be  substituted.  The 
soybean  is  a more  valuable  crop  and  is  conveniently  followed  by  wheat. 
If  grown  for  seed,  however,  the  crop  requires  labor  at  the  same  time  that 
corn  is  needing  cultivation  which  does  not  make  a good  distribution  of 
labor. 

Alfalfa  is  not  commonly  included  because  it  is  unsuited  to  short  time 
rotat'ons.  The  expense  of  seeding  and  the  value  of  the  crop  make  it  ad- 
visable to  leave  a stand  of  alfalfa  at  least  five  years  or  as  long  as  it  is 


Fig.  7. — An  old,  standard  three-year  rotation. 


good.  Where  alfalfa  is  grown  an  extra  field  should  be  provided  for  it. 
When  ready  to  plow  up  alfalfa  a new  stand  may  be  seeded  on  one  of  the 
other  fields  and  the  alfalfa  field  taken  into  the  rotation. 

Where  potatoes,  tobacco  or  other  cultivated  crops  are  grown  they  may 
be  substituted  for  part  of  the  corn,  following  the  sod  crop. 

Suggested  Rotations  for  Best  Missouri  Uplands. — Rotation  No.  1 for 
general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  oats,  3.  clover. 

This  three-year  rotation  is  an  old  standard  one  proved  by  long  ex- 
perience. It  is  well  balanced  and  simple  to  maintain  being  suited  to  farms 
having  either  three  or  six  fields.  It  keeps  one-third  of  the  land  in  corn, 
which  is  enough  for  even  the  best  of  soils  unless  more  than  ordinary  care 
is  given  to  manuring  and  fertilizing.  One-third  of  the  land  is  kept  in 
a legume-sod  crop.  Labor  is  well  distributed,  only  one-third  of  the  land 
being  plowed  each  year.  Even  this  rotation  will  not  maintain  the  soil 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


unless  the  manure,  stalks,  straw,  etc.,  are  returned  to  the  soil.  This  rota- 
tion has  the  one  objection  of  using  oats  as  a nurse  crop  for  clover.  Oats 
shade  the  ground  heavily  and  are  harvested  rather  late.  Early  oats  make 
a better  nurse  crop  than  late  oats. 

Rotation  No.  2 for  general  or  grain  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  wheat,  3. 

clover. 

This  rotation  has  the  same  advantages  as  No.  1 except  that  it  is  more 
difficult  to  sow  wheat  after  corn  than  to  sow  oats.  It  is  especially  well 
adapted  to  farms  where  corn  is  cut  and  shocked  or  used  for  ensilage. 

Rotation  No.  3 for  general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  corn,  3.  oats,  4.  wheat, 

5.  clover. 

This  rotation  increases  the  amount  of  corn  to  two  fifths  of  the  farm 
and  to  maintain  the  soil,  much  care  must  be  given  to  putting  back,  manure, 
stalks,  straw,  etc. 

Rotation  No.  4 for  the  larger  stock  farms:  1.  corn,  2.  corn,  3.  oats,  4. 

clover  and  timothy,  5.  clover  and  timothy. 

This  gives  an  abundance  of  corn  and  hay  as  well  as  oats  and  oat  straw. 
Where  timothy  is  seeded  with  clover  the  chances  of  getting  a stand  of 
hay  are  increased.  In  this  system  timothy  and  clover  are  seeded  in  the 

oats  in  the  spring.  Wheat  may  be  used  instead  of  oats. 

Rotation  No.  5 for  grain  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  soybeans  for  seed,  3. 
wheat,  4.  clover  for  seed. 

This  is  a good  rotation  in  that  it  keeps  a legume  on  the  land  most  of 
the  time  and  includes  a sod  crop.  For  a strictly  grain  system  where  little 
manure  is  provided,  wheat  and  soybean  straw  as  well  as  clover  chaff  and 
corn  stalks  must  be  returned  to  the  soil  if  the  soil  is  safely  kept  up.  The 
soybeans  and  corn  compete  for  labor  but  this  includes  only  half  of  the 
farm  in  cultivated  crops.  Wheat  follows  soybeans  most  advantageously. 
Sufficient  clover  should  be  cut  to  supply  hay  for  the  stock  necessary  even 
on  a grain  farm. 

This  rotation  may  be  used  for  mixed  farming  where  all  roughage  and 
part  of  the  grain  is  fed,  if  the  manure  is  then  taken  care  of.  In  this  case 
part  or  all  of  the  clover  may  be  cut  for  hay. 

ROTATIONS  FOR  THE  LEVEL  PRAIRIES 

The  level  prairies  of  Missouri  are  chiefly  in  the  northeast  and  south- 
west sections  of  the  state.  They  vary  from  undulating  to  level  plains 
where  drainage  is  sometimes  a problem.  Most  of  these  soils  are  sour  and 
will  not  grow  red  clover  satisfactorily  until  the  soil  has  been  limed.*  The 
clay  subsoils  under  these  prairies  are  often  rather  compact  and  impervious. 

Timothy  and  wheat  are  among  the  best  adapted  crops  and  are  widely 
grown.  There  is  at  present  a very  serious  lack  of  legume  crops  on  these 
prairies  and  the  soils  are  usually  not  being  well  maintained.  Lime  should 
be  used  and  clover  seeded.  In  the  southwest  Missouri  prairies,  periods  of 
dry  weather  offer  an  additional  problem  in  the  way  of  growing  clover. 
Alsike  clover  withstands  wet  conditions  better  than  red  or  sweet  clover. 


'Write  to  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  for  Bulletin  171  on  Liming. 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


17 


Where  clover  is  used  in  the  following  rotations  it  is  understood  therefore 
that  alsike  clover  may  well  be  used  where  drainage  is  poor. 

None  of  the  clovers  can  be  considered  a dependable  crop  on  sour  soils 
and  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  use  lime  before  any  of  them  can  be 
grown.  Where  liming  can  not  be  done  immediately  a temporary  rotation 
of  crops  suited  to  sour  soils  may  be  used,  but  in  most  cases  it  is  advisable 
to  use  lime  as  soon  as  possible,  and  then  adopt  a rotation  containing  one 
of  the  clovers.  Where  clover  is  uncertain  it  is  advisable  to  mix  timothy 
and  clover,  thus  increasing  the  chances  for  a stand  of  hay  and  for  a sod 
crop.  Timothy  is  usually  seeded  in  the  fall,  either  in  wheat  or  rye  or  alone. 
The  clovers  are  all  seeded  in  the  spring. 

In  Southwest  Missouri  the  grain  sorghums,  such  as  kafir,  milo,  and 
feterita  may  well  be  used  instead  of  corn  in  some  cases.  They  are  culti- 
vated crops  and  occupy  the  same  place  in  the  rotation.  Where  grain  sorg- 
hum is  grown  in  place  of  corn*  the  kafirs  are  to  be  preferred  over  all  other 
varieties.  They  may  therefore  be  substituted  freely  in  the  following  rota- 
tions where  corn  is  included. 


Partial  List  of  Crops  for  the  Level  Prairies: 


Cultivated  crops 

Corn 

Soybean 

Kafir 

Sweet  sorghum 


Small  grains 
Wheat 
Oats 
Rye 


Sod  crops 

Timothy 
Red  clover 
Alsike  clover 
Sweet  clover 
Redtop 
Bluegrass 

Annual  legumes  not  included  in  sod 
crops. 

Soybeans 

Cowpeas 


Suggested  Rotations  for  Level  Prairies — Rotation  No.  1 for  large  stock 
farms:  1.  corn,  2.  corn,  3.  oats,  4.  wheat,  5.  clover  and  timothy,  6.  clover 

and  timothy. 

This  is  a well  balanced  rotation  for  soil  upkeep  and  distribution  of 
labor.  The  crops  follow  each  other  conveniently.  Soils  of  the  level  prairies 
should  never  have  corn  on  them  more  than  a third  of  the  time  unless  in 
cases  of  emergency.  This  rotation  requires  six  fields  and  is  therefore  not 
so  well  suited  to  small  farms. 

Rotation  No.  2 for  large  stock  or  general  farms:  1.  corn,  2.  corn,  3. 

soybeans,  4.  wheat,  5.  clover  and  timothy,  6.  clover  and  timothy. 

This  is  the  same  rotation  as  No.  1 except  that  soybeans  replace  oats. 
It  has  the  same  advantages  except  that  it  is  even  better  for  the  soil  by  hav- 
ing an  additional  legume  crop.  The  soybean  is  a better  crop  than  oats, 
but  requires  a little  more  labor. 


*Write  for  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  185,  “Corn  in  Missouri. 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


Rotation  No.  3 for  stock  farms:  1.  corn,  2.  oats,  3.  clover  and  timothy, 

4.  clover  and  timothy. 

This  is  a good  soil-maintaining  rotation  since  it  keeps  the  soil  covered 
with  a crop  for  over  half  of  the  time.  It  gives  only  one-fourth  of  the  farm 
to  corn,  which  reduces  labor  but  does  not  give  as  much  corn  as  some  feed- 
ers may  require.  By  plowing  up  the  sod  after  the  first  hay  crop  this  ro- 
tation may  be  reduced  to  three  years  and  adapted  to  a three  field  farm. 
Rye  may  be  drilled  in  the  corn  for  fall  and  winter  pasture  but  the  land  will 
then  need  plowing  for  oats. 

Rotation  No.  4 for  general  farms:  1.  corn,  2.  oats,  3.  wheat,  4.  clover 

and  timothy. 

This  is  an  old  standard  rotation  proved  by  the  experience  of  many 
farmers.  On  a livestock  farm  all  but  the  wheat  and  part  of  the  oats  should 
be  used  for  feed  and  bedding.  Oats  straw  makes  good  winter  roughage, 
while  clover  hay,  corn  and  oats  provide  a fairly  well  balanced  feed  supply. 
The  manure  thus  made  will  keep  the  soil  in  excellent  condition  if  properly 
used.  Soybeans  may  also  be  substituted  for  oats  in  this  rotation. 

Rotation  No.  5 for  sour  soils:  1.  corn,  2.  soybeans  or  cowpeas,  3. 

wheat,  4.  timothy. 

The  crops  in  this  rotation  will  endure  a certain  amount  of  sourness  in 
the  soil.  It  is  not  so  good  as  a rotation  with  clover  in  it,  however,  and  it 
is  usually  advisable  to  lime  the  soil  as  soon  as  possible  and  then  mix  clover 
with  the  timothy.  Even  without  liming  it  is  usually  advisable  to  sow  some 
alsike  clover  with  the  timothy  since  this  clover  is  a little  more  hardy  than 
red  clover.  It  stands  wet  land  better  and  the  seeding  is  less  expensive. 

ROTATIONS  FOR  THE  BETTER  ROLLING  UPLANDS 

This  includes  the  rolling  to  rather  hilly  lands  where  the  soils  have 
good  depth  and  fertility,  but  are  subject  to  erosion  if  not  carefully  handled 
Experiments  now  being  carried  on  by  the  Experiment  Station  show  that 
even  on  gently  rolling  lands  erosion  may  cause  a large  loss  of  nitrogen  from 
the  soil.  More  than  ordinary  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  it.  In  selecting 
a rotation  for  rolling  lands,  therefore,  attention  must  be  given  to  choosing 
crops  which  will  cover  the  land  through  the  winter  when  erosion  is  often 
severe. 

Some  rolling  lands  occur  throughout  the  state,  but  the  districts  in 
which  they  predominate  and  yet  which  have  good  deep  soils  are  North 
Central  Missouri,  the  river  hill  belt,  chiefly  along  the  Missouri  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers,  and  the  Ozark  Border  Region.  The  Ozark  Border  Region  is 
most  extensive  in  Southwest  Missouri,  particularly  in  the  Springfield  dis- 
trict, but  occupies  a belt  along  the  west,  north,  and  east  sides  of  the 
Ozarks.  Naturally  a great  variety  of  conditions  must  be  met  in  the  various 
sections  of  rolling  country.  Not  all  of  the  good  crops  and  good  rotations 
can  be  given  here. 

Rolling  lands  are  best  suited  to  livestock  or  general  farming,  including 
dairying  as  a phase  of  livestock  farming.  Fruit  growing  i also  adapted 
but  cannot  be  included  in  this  discussion.  Grain  farming  is  unsuited  to 
the  conditions.  Limited  districts  in  the  river  hill  or  brown  loess  area,  par- 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


19 


ticularly  between  St.  Joseph  and  Kansas  City  grow  considerable  tobacco. 
Tobacco  may  be  used  as  a part  of  the  cultivated  crop  and  substituted  for 
corn  in  any  of  the  following  rotations. 


Partial  List  of  Crops  for  Use  on  the  Better  Rolling  Upland  Soils: 


Cultivated  crops 

Corn 

Soybeans  for  seed 
Kafir  corn 
Sweet  sorghums 


Small  grains 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rye 

Barley 


Sod  crops 

Red  clover 
Sweet  clover 
Alfalfa 
Timothy 
Bluegrass 

Annual  legumes  not  included  in  sod 
crops. 

Soybeans 

Cowpeas 


Alfalfa  is  suited  to  the  better  soils  of  the  rolling  districts  especially 
to  the  river  hill  lands,  the  darker  colored  glacial  soils  of  north  central  Mis- 
souri, and  the  better  soils  of  the  Springfield  district.  Other  areas  may 
grow  it  by  careful  methods  and  the  liberal  use  of  limestone  and  phos- 
phates. 


Soybeans  Wheats  Tirnot/h^f 


Fig.  8. — A good  rotation  for  sour  soil. 


Suggested  Rotations  for  Rolling  Upland  Soils. — Rotation  No.  1 for 
general  or  stock  farms:  1.  corn,  with  rye  in  fall  for  winter  cover,  2.  soy- 

beans, 3.  wheat,  4.  clover  and  timothy. 

This  is  a good  rotation  in  which  the  land  is  never  left  bare  through 
the  winter.  Rye  seeded  in  the  corn  makes  good  winter  and  early-  spring 
pasture,  but  it  must  be  plowed  down  early,  or  damage  will  be  done  to  the 
following  crop  of  soybeans.  It  is  a more  effective  cover  crop  if  not  pas- 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


tured  too  close;  neither  can  it  be  pastured  while  the  ground  is  soft,  with- 
out serious  injury  to  the  soil. 

Oats  may  be  used  in  place  of  soybeans  but  if  rye  is  used  as  a cover 
crop  this  would  require  plowing  the  land  for  oats,  which  is  usually  im- 
practical. 

If  the  soil  is  sour  and  can  not  be  limed  at  once,  clover  may  be  omitted 
from  the  fourth  year  until  lime  can  be  provided. 

Rotation  No.  2 for  general  farms:  1.  corn,  2.  wheat,  3.  clover  and  tim- 

othy. 

This  is  also  a well  balanced  rotation  with  a crop  on  the  land  each  win- 
ter.' It  requires  but  three  fields  and  is  therefore  suited  to  small  farms.  It 
is,  however,  difficult  to  sow  wheat  in  standing  corn.  The  rotation  is  well 
suited  to  stock  and  dairy  farms  where  the  corn  is  used  for  silage,  or  where 
corn  is  cut  and  shocked.  The  timothy  is  included  as  insurance  against 
a failure  in  securing  a sod  crop. 

Rotation  No.  3 for  stock  farms:  1.  corn,  with  rye  cover  crop,  2.  corn, 
3.  wheat,  4.  clover  and  timothy,  5.  clover  and  timothy. 

This  is  a well  balanced  five-year  rotation  for  soil  maintenance.  Diffi- 
culties in  seeding  rye  and  wheat  in  corn  are  encountered  but  this  is  unavoid- 
able if  corn  ground  is  not  to  be  left  bare  through  the  winter.  It  necessi- 
tates cutting  the  corn  or  seeding  between  the  rows. 

Rotation  No.  4.  for  livestock  farms:  1.  corn,  2.  rye  for  pasture,  3.  clover 
or  clover  and  timothy. 

This  rotation  furnishes  corn  as  the  only  grain,  but  gives  an  abundance 
of  roughage  especially  if  the  corn  is  cut  for  silage,  or  shock  corn.  Rye 
may  also  be  used  for  grain.  It  is  hardy,  matures  early  and  does  not  shade 
the  ground  as  much,  which  gives  the  clover  a good  chance. 

Rotation  No.  4 for  general  farm  with  part  fertile  bottom  land  and  part 
upland  soil:  For  bottom  land,  alfalfa  5 years,  corn  5 years;  for  upland,  1. 
soybeans,  2.  rye,  3.  timothy  and  clover. 

With  this  plan  all  corn  is  grown  in  the  bottom,  where  half  the  area 
is  kept  in  corn  and  the  other  half  in  alfalfa.  This  keeps  corn  on  the  same 
field  longer  than  is  usually  advisable,  but  if  it  is  kept  in  corn  only  half  the 
time,  and  manured,  bottom  soil  will  be  kept  in  a very  satisfactory  state  of 
fertility.  It  is  not  feasible  to  reseed  alfalfa  more  often  than  once  in  4 or 
5 years. 

With  no  corn  on  the  upland  this  arrangement  provides  soybeans  for 
a cash  crop,  and  rye  may  be  either  sold  or  fed.  The  upland  soil  is  thus 
overed  each  winter,  and  an  abundance  of  feed  is  provided. 

ROTATIONS  FOR  THE  POOR  ROLLING  UPLANDS 

Limited  areas  of  rather  poor  hilly  upland  soils  occur  at  various  places 
over  the  state.  They  are  usually  intermingled  with  areas  of  better  soils. 
As  a class  they  are  inclined  to  be  shallow,  unproductive,  and  subject  to 
severe  erosion,  if  left  unprotected.  There  is  a higher  percentage  of  such 
lands  in  the  Ozark  Region  than  in  other  districts. 

The  chief  problem  on  lands  of  this  character  is  the  prevention  of  ero- 
sion. Much  of  it  is  best  left  in  pasture,  which  is  the  greatest  means  of 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


21 


avoiding  erosion.  Where  not  too  steep  farming  is  profitably  done  if  care 
is  used  in  selection  of  crops  and  methods  of  soil  management.  The  soil 
should  not  be  left  bare  over  winter,  and  the  acreage  of  cultivated  crops 
must  be  kept  down  to  the  minimum.  Farming  should  be  done  across  the 
dope  rather  than  up  and  down  it.  In  some  cases  terracing  is  advisable.1 

These  areas  of  rolling  lands  have  excessive  drainage,  and  frequently 
suffer  from  drought.  It  is  therefore  best  to  select  crops  which  withstand 
spells  of  dry  weather  well.  In  the  Ozark  uplands  it  has  been  found  that 
the  grain  sorghums  will  yield  more  bushels  of  grain  than  will  corn  under 
the  same  circumstances.  Their  use  in  place  of  corn  for  either  grain  or 
silage  is  strongly  recommended.2  Rye  which  is  hardy,  early  maturing  and 
drought-resistant  may  be  used  instead  of  wheat  in  many  instances. 

Much  of  the  poor  rolling  land  is  sour  even  though  it  may  have  been 
derived  from  limestone.  Slopes  lying  below  limestone  outcrops  are  usually 
not  sour  because  lime  constantly  washes  down  into  them.  Where  the  soil 
is  sour,  lime  should  be  provided  before  much  success  is  likely,  to  be  attained 
with  the  clovers. 

Only  livestock  or  fruit  farming  should  be  attempted  on  these  lands. 
Just  enough  grain  should  be  grown  for  use  as  feed,  except  that  wheat  or 
rye  may  often  be  sold. 

Over  this  section  soybeans  and  cowpeas  should  be  grown.  They  are 
drought-resistant,  are  well  adapted  to  slightly  sour  soils,  and  have  the 
ability  to  make  fair  returns  on  thin  soils.  They  are  well  adapted  to  grow- 
ing for  either  seed  or  hay.  As  a cash  crop  for  seed  they  are  more  profit- 
able than  corn  over  much  of  the  section,  and  are  not  so  hard  on  the  soil. 


Crops  That  May  Be  Grown  on  the  Poor  Rolling  Uplands: 


Cultivated  crops 

Corn 

Kafir  or  other  grain  sorghums 
Sweet  sorghums 
Soybeans  for  seed 
Cowpeas  for  seed 

Small  grains 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oats 

Millet 


Sod  crops 

Timothy 
Orchard  grass 
Bluegrass 

Lespedeza  or  Japan  clover 
Red  clover 

Annual  legumes  not  included  in  sod 
crops 

Soybeans 

Cowpeas 


Suggested  rotations  for  poor  upland  soils. — Rotation  No.  1 for  general 
farming:  1.  corn  or  grain  sorghum,  2.  rye  or  wheat,  3.  timothy  and  clover, 
4.  timothy  and  clover. 

This  plan  keeps  the  soil  covered  every  winter  and  in  sod  more  than 
half  of  the  time.  It  will  supply  much  forage  and  a fair  supply  of  grain. 
If  rye  is  used  it  may  be  ground  with  corn  or  grain  sorghum  for  feed,  thus 

1Write  for  Experiment  Station  Circular  No.  98  on  The  Mangum  Terrace. 

2Write  for  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  185  on  Corn  in  Missouri. 


22  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


providing  for  a strictly  livestock  system  of  farming.  If  the  manure  is 
properly  handled  this  makes  an  excellent  system  for  soil  maintenance. 

Rotation  No.  2 for  general  farming:  1.  corn  or  grain  sorghum,  with 

rye  in  fall,  2.  soybeans  or  cowpeas,  3.  wheat  or  rye,  4.  clover  and  timothy, 
5.  clover  and  timothy. 

This  also  provides  winter  cover,  an  abundance  of  legumes,  to  build  up 
nitrogen,  and  a good  acreage  of  sod  crops.  It  provides  for  seeding  wheat 
or  rye  after  soybeans  or  cowpeas,  which  is  often  preferred  to  seeding  after 
corn. 

Rotation  No.  3 for  grain  farming:  1.  wheat,  2.  wheat  or  rye,  3.  clover 

and  timothy. 

On  thin,  eroded  areas  where  a cultivated  crop  is  not  desired  this  plan 
may  be  used.  If  rye  is  used  as  one  of  the  grain  crops  it  will  give  a smaller 
chance  of  loss  from  a bad  wheat  season.  Timothy  is  added  as  an  insurance 
against  a sod  crop  failure. 

ROTATIONS  FOR  THE  BEST  BOTTOM  SOILS 

Lands  of  this  character  are  found  all  along  the  bottoms  of  the  Missouri 
and  Mississippi  rivers.  There  are  also  small  areas  along  many  smaller  streams. 
The  most  extensive  area  is  the  large  lowland  region  of  southeastern  Mis- 
souri. The  most  productive  bottom  soils  are  included,  from  those  contain- 
ing some  sand  but  not  enough  to  be  harmful,  to  those  that  are  too  heavy 
to  be  farmed  easily. 

These  soils  are  capable  of  producing  corn  more  of  the  time  than  the 
upland  soils,  but  this  fact  is  realized  too  well,  and  in  many  cases  corn  is 
grown  almost  continuously.  No  soil  will  stand  continuous  corn  production, 
however,  with  the  possible  exception  of  soils  which  are  overflowed  fre- 
quently. It  is  at  least  probable  that  no  farm  should  have  more  than  three- 
fifths  of  its  area  in  corn  if  the  soil  is  to  be  permanently  maintained.  It  is 
much  easier  and  cheaper,  in  the  end,  to  keep  a soil  in  a high  state  of  pro- 
ductiveness than  to  build  it  up  if  it  is  once  permitted  to  run  down.  Soils 
of  this  group  need  little  besides  a good  rotation  and  proper  use  of  manure 
and  crop  residues  to  keep  them  productive. 

Alfalfa  is  better  suited  to  the  best  bottom  lands,  where  drainage  is 
good,  than  to  any  other  group  of  soils  in  the  State.  It  does  not  lend  itself 
to  use  in  short  time  rotations,  but  after  providing  fields  for  a rotation  an 
extra  field  should  be  set  aside  for  alfalfa.  When  the  stand  finally  fails  or 
A is  desired  for  any  reason  to  plow  it  up,  this  extra  field  may  be  taken 
into  the  rotation  and  one  of  the  rotation  fields  used  for  alfalfa. 

Where  potatoes  are  grown  extensively  they  may  be  substituted  for  corn 
in  these  rotations.  Wheat  is  a good  crop  to  follow  potatoes. 


Cultivated  crops 

Corn 

Potatoes 

Soybeans  for  seed 


Crops  Suited  to  the  Best  Bottom  Soils: 
Sod  crops 


Alfalfa 
Red  clover 
Alsike  clover 
Timothy 
Bluegrass 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


23 


Small  grains 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley- 


Annual  legumes  not  included  in  sod 
crops 

Soybeans 

Cowpeas 


Suggested  rotations  for  the  best  bottom  soils. — Rotation  No.  1 for  gen- 
eral- farming:  1.  corn,  2.  corn,  3.  oats  or  wheat,  4.  clover. 

This  rotation  gives  half  of  the  farm  to  corn  and  the  clover  crop  com- 
bines the  sod  and  legume  crops  necessary  to  a satisfactory  rotation.  Corn 
may  be  followed  by  oats  better  than  by  wheat.  Early  oats  should  be  used 
since  they  make  a better  nurse  crop. 

Rotation  No.  2 for  general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  corn,  3.  corn,  4.  oats 

or  wheat,  5.  clover  and  timothy,  6.  clover  and  timothy. 

On  large  farms  where  six  fields  can  be  provided  this  is  a good  rotation. 
Under  exceptional  conditions,  including  a very  fertile  soil  and  exceptional 
care  in  returning  manure,  straw  and  other  crop  residues,  the  clover  and  tim- 
othy may  be  plowed  up  after  one  year,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  a 
practice  can  maintain  productiveness  unless  considerable  feed  is  bought, 
to  make  more  manure,  and  nearly  all  of  the  corn  is  fed. 

Rotation  No.  3 for  general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  corn,  3.  corn,  4.  soy- 

beans, 5.  wheat,  6.  clover. 

This  is  an  exceptionally  good  rotation  on  strong  soils  where  sufficient 
labor  can  be  provided  to  take  care  of  cultivating  so  much  corn  and  soy- 
beans. Less  labor  is  required  if  oats  be  substituted  for  the  soybeans,  but 
the  crop  is  not  so  valuable  either  for  profit  or  soil  maintenance. 


ROTATIONS  FOR  SANDY  BOTTOM  SOILS 

There  are  considerable  areas  of  sandy  soils  in  the  bottomlands  of 
nearly  all  streams.  A small  part  of  this  acreage  is  too  sandy  for  profit- 
able cropping.  Most  of  the  area  is  fertile  but  needs  more  care  than  the 
silty  soils,  if  its  fertility  is  to  be  preserved. 

Sandy  soils  are  exceedingly  well  suited  to  legume  crops,  once  they  are 
established.  The  open  character  of  these  soils  is  favorable  to  the  deep  root 
systems  of  legumes,  and  nitrogen  fixing  bacteria  on  legume  roots  grow 
abundantly  in  an  open  soil.  This  is  fortunate  because  open  sandy  soils 
lose  their  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  rapidly  on  account  of  the  free  air 
circulation  and  rapid  decay  in  such  soils. 

The  chief  difficulty  involved  is  in  the  seeding  of  clover  and  alfalfa. 
Sandy  soils  dry  out  quickly  on  the  surface  and  small  seeded  crops  of  this 
type  may  be  killed  out  before  their  roots  become  established  deeply  enough 
to  draw  moisture  from  lower  levels.  If  the  surface  soil  is  kept  well  filled 
with  organic  matter  as  manure,  straw,  stalks,  etc.,  this  drying  out  process 
is  largely  avoided. 

Some  sandy  soils  are  also  found  to  contain  too  little  lime  for  clover 
and  alfalfa,  but  their  most  serious  deficiency  is  in  the  supply  of  organic 
matter. 

Cowpeas  and  soybeans  are  easy  to  establish  and  exceedingly  well 
adapted  to  sandy  soils.  The  best  soybean  and  cowpea  lands  of  the  state 
are  the  sandy  soils  of  southeastern  Missouri.  Special  crops  such  as  melons 


24  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


and  early  potatoes  are  grown  to  considerable  extent  on  certain  sandy  soils 
of  the  state.  Several  counties  of  southeastern  Missouri  also  grow  con- 
siderable areas  of  cotton.  These  cultivated  crops  may  be  interchanged 
with  corn  in  the  following  rotations. 

Crops  Suited  to  Sandy  Bottom  Soils: 

Sod  crops 

Red  clover 
Mammoth  clover 
Alfalfa 
Alsike  clover 

Annual  legumes  not  included  in  sod 
crops 

Soybeans 
Cowpeas 
Vetches 
Velvet  beans 

Suggested  rotations  for  sandy  bottom  soils. — Rotation  No.  1 for  gen- 
eral farming:  1.  corn,  2.  soybeans,  3.  wheat,  with  cowpeas  seeded  in  stubble. 

With  the  soybeans  grown  for  seed  this  rotation  yields  a seed  or  grain 
crop  every  year;  but  to  maintain  the  soil  soybean  and  cowpea  straw  must 


Cultivated  crops 

Corn 

Soybeans 

Cotton 

Melons 

Potatoes 

Small  grains 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rye 


Fig.  9. — Sandy  soil  rotation  for  Southeast  Missouri. 

be  returned  to  the  soil  either  by  spreading  back  on  the  fields  or  by  feeding 
and  saving  all  manure.  The  cowpeas  may  be  pastured.  Soybeans  or  cow- 
peas may  also  be  seeded  in  the  corn  and  both  pastured  down.  All  wheat 
straw  should  be  returned  either  as  straw  or  bedding. 

Rotation  No.  2 for  general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  soybeans,  3.  wheat,  4.' 

clover  or  cowpeas. 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


25 


This  rotation  is  good  for  those  areas  which  are  not  too  sandy  to  get 
clover  started. 

Rotation  No.  3 for  general  farming:  1.  cotton,  and  rye,  2.  cowpeas, 

3.  corn  and  rye,  4.  cowpeas. 

This  plan  includes  rye  seeded  in  both  corn  and  cotton  crops  to  be  used 
as  winter  pasture  and  plowed  under  for  organic  matter  in  the  spring.  As 
much  cowpea  straw  or  manure  should  be  returned  as  possible. 

ROTATIONS  FOR  GRAY  BOTTOM  SOILS 

Gray  bottom  soils  occur  in  limited  areas  throughout  the  state,  but  are 
most  extensive  in  the  western  part  of  the  lowland  area  of  southeastern 
Missouri.  They  were  formed  under  conditions  of  poor  drainage  or  are 
very  old  soils  that  have  been  subjected  to  much  leaching.  They  usually 
have  rather  heavy,  compact  subsoils,  and  consequently  under  drainage  and 
aeration  may  be  insufficient.  Most  of  these  soils  were  originally  timbered 

Corn,  wheat,  cowpeas  and  timothy  are  adapted  to  these  soils.  In  gen- 
eral they  need  lime  before  clover  does  well  on  them.  Where  well  culti- 
vated, corn  is  a fair  to  good  crop.  The  use  of  lime,  followed  by  alsike  clover, 
will  do  much  for  these  soils.  Rice  is  grown  successfully  on  certain  soils  of 
this  group  in  southeastern  Missouri. 


Crops  Suited  to  the  Gray  Bottom  Soils: 


Cultivated  crops 

Corn 

Soybeans 

Sod  crops 

Timothy 
Redtop 
Bluegrass 
Alsike  clover 
Red  clover 

Lespedeza  or  Japanese  clover 


Small  grains 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rye 

Rice  (in  some  cases) 

Annual  legumes  not  included  in  sod 
crops 

Soybeans 

Cowpeas 


Suggested  rotations  for  gray  bottom  soils. — Rotation  No.  1 for  general 
farming:  1.  corn,  2.  wheat,  3.  timothy  and  alsike  clover. 

This  rotation  is  well  balanced  and  suited  to  the  soil.  It  is  very  good 
if  arrangement  is  made  for  seeding  wheat  on  corn  ground.  Oats  or  rye 
may  be  used  instead  of  wheat.  If  desired  the  timothy  and  clover  may  be  left 
for  two  years,  making  a four  year  rotation,  which  is  highly  beneficial  to 
the  soil. 

Rotation  No.  2 for  general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  cowpeas,  3.  wheat,  4. 

timothy  and  alsike  clover. 

This  is  an  easier  rotation  to  maintain  since  cowpeas  follow  corn  more 
easily  than  does  wheat.  It  may  also  be  extended  by  leaving  the  timothy 
and  clover  for  another  year. 


26  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  183 


Rotation  No.  3 for  rice  farming:  1.  rice,  2.  rice,  3.  soybeans  cultivated 

for  seed. 

This  use  of  cultivated  legume  crop  in  rice  growing  aids  in  cleaning  out 
red  rice  and  weeds  as  well  as  in  adding  some  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 


ROTATIONS  FOR  GUMBO  BOTTOMS 

■Soils  of  this  class  are  inherently  fertile,  but  difficult  to  handle.  Drain- 
age is  usually  poor  and  plowing  difficult.  The  amount  of  work  necessary 
in  the  spring  when  gumbo  soils  are  wet  must  be  reduced  to  the  minimum. 
Fall  plowing  is  advisable  and  erosion  is  not  a problem. 

Under  conditions  of  poor  drainage  the  best  crops  are  wheat,  timothy, 
alsike  clover  and  corn.  With  improved  drainage  alfalfa  and  red  clover 
are  good  crops  and  corn  is  greatly  improved. 

Gumbo  is  difficult  to  plow  if  not  in  just  the  right  moisture  condition. 
It  is  therefore  highly  desirable  to  have  large  plowing  equipment  to  plow 
rapidly  when  conditions  are  favorable. 


Cultivated  crops 

Corn 

Soybeans 

Sod  crops 
Timothy 
Alsike  clo\er 
Red  clover 
Alfalfa 
Bluegrass 


Crops  Suited  to  Gumbo  Soils: 

Small  grains 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Annual  legumes  not  included  in  sod 
crops 

Soybeans 

Cowpeas 


Rotation  No.  1 for  general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  corn,  3.  wheat,  4.  tim- 

othy and  alsike  clover,  5.  timothy  and  alsike  clover. 

This  gives  a good  balance  of  crops  for  soil  maintenance  and  is  good 
where  half  of  the  corn  can  be  cut.  Where  no  corn  is  cut  oats  may  be  used 
instead  of  wheat,  but  oats  are  difficult  to  seed  on  gumbo  because  it  is  too 
wet  during  the  oats  sowing  season.  They  usually  lodge  badly  also. 

Rotation  No.  2 for  general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  wheat,  3.  wheat,  4. 

timothy  and  alsike  clover,  5.  timothy  and  alsike  clover. 

This  gives  a greater  acreage  of  wheat  and  reduces  the  amount  of 
ground  necessary  to  be  worked  in  the  spring. 

Rotation  No.  3 for  general  farming:  1.  corn,  2.  soybeans,  3.  wheat, 

4.  timothy  and  alsike  clover,  5.  timothy  and  alsike  clover. 

This  plan  combines  crops  that  follow  each  other  easily.  By  using  an 
early  variety  of  soybeans  they  may  be  seeded  later  than  corn  after  the 
soil  has  dried  out  to  some  extent. 


Crop  Rotations  for  Missouri  Soils 


27 


ROTATION  THE  FIRST  STEP  IN  ESTABLISHING  SYSTEMS  OF 
PERMANENT  FERTILITY 

Not  all  the  crops  that  may  be  grown  in  each  locality  have  been  treated 
here,  nor  have  all  the  possible  good  combinations  been  arranged,  but  suffi- 
cient principles  and  examples  have  been  given  to  enable  anyone  interested 
in  special  combinations  of  crops  to  devise  a plan  suited  to  his  special  con- 
ditions and  needs. 

There  is  great  need  for  improved  systems  of  cropping  over  most  of  the 
state;  especially  is  there  a need  for  a more  general  use  of  legume  crops 
particularly  red  clover. 


Fig.  10. — A good  rotation  for  any  part  of  the  State. 


Rotation  alone  will  not  maintain  soils  but  is  probably  the  greatest 
factor  in  most  practical  systems  of  soil  management,  and  when  supple- 
mented with  proper  use  of  manures,  lime,  and  phosphates,  complete,  profit- 
able, and  permanent  systems  of  soil  maintenance  may  be  evolved,  to  the 
great  benefit  of  the  individual  and  following  generations. 


IN  MISSOURI 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  184 


SMALL  FRUIT  GROWING 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
MAY,  1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 
EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADEEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 

ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 


MAY, 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 
C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.3 
R.  M.  Smith  A.  M. 

T.  E.  Friedmann,  B.  S. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  Sieveking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  F.  Ahmann,  A.  B. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B .S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

L.  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Barnard,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  Edinger,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale.  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Samuel  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

O.  C.  McBride, 

FIELD  CROPS 
W.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm,  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  M.  King,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 


1921 

RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  Gromer,  A.  M. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

Ben  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S. 

F.  C.  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  SwARTwauT,  B S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L.  Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson.  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

veterinary  science 

J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crtsler,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 

R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S.,  Sercretary 

S.  B.  ShirkEY,  A.  M.,  Asst,  to  Director 
A.  A.  Jeffrey,  A.  B.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 

Miss  Bertha  Hite,1 2  Seed  Testing  Lab- 
oratory. 


1In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

2On  leave  of  absen.e 


Small  Fruit  Growing  In  Missouri 

H.  G.  SWARTWOUT 
INTRODUCTION 

The  commercial  production  of  raspberries,  blackberries  and  dewberries 
in  Missouri  is  only  in  its  infancy.  The  possibilities  for  future  development 
of  this  industry  are  very  great,  considering  the  areas  adapted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  these  fruits,  and  the  great  demand  that  is  now  but  poorly  supplied. 
At  present  nearly  all  the  plantings  of  the  bramble  fruits  are  located  near 
a few  of  the  larger  cities,  and  even  there  the  production  is  far  below  the 
demand.  True  there  is  still  a fairly  large  acreage  of  wild  blackberries  in 
certain  sections  of  the  state,  but  this  acreage  is  not  nearly  so  large  as 
formerly  and  what  is  left  is  rapidly  disappearing  as  more  and  more  land  is 
cleared  and  put  under  cultivation. 

There  are  practically  no  commercial  plantings  near  a large  number 
of  the  smaller  Missouri  cities  and  towns,  each  one  of  which  would  con- 
sume locally  all  the  fruit  produced  from  several  acres.  If  one  is  inter- 
ested in  large  commercial  plantings,  there  are  plenty  of  opportunities  for 
locating  near  the  larger  cities  or  along  railroads  that  have  direct  con- 
nection with  the  large  consuming  centers. 

There  are,  of  course,  a number  of  problems  encountered  in  the  pro- 
duction of  small  fruits,  which  are  not  met  in  the  production  of  the  tree 
fruits.  The  berries  are  a soft,  perishable  product  which  must  be  handled 
carefully  and  quickly.  The  fruit  ripens  rapidly  and  in  a comparatively 
short  period  of  time,  necessitating  large  picking  crews;  and  it  moulds  or 
sours  quickly,  making  immediate  disposal  imperative.  The  bushes  are 
short-lived,  shallow-rooted  and  subject  to  injury  from  the  summer  droughts 
occurring  in  the  middle  west. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  two  big  advantages  in  the  growing  of  the 
small  fruits:  First,  returns  can  be  expected  within  two  or  three  years  from 
the  time  of  planting  and,  second,  large  returns  are  possible  from  a small 
acreage,  in  fact  an  acreage  so  small  that  one  man  can  easily  handle  the  en- 
tire plantation,  except  at  picking  time.  These  two  advantages  make  it 
possible  to  conduct  the  business  upon  high-priced  land  advantageously  lo- 
cated for  quick  and  easy  disposal  of  the  fruit. 


TYPES  OF  THE  BRAMBLES 

Of  the  raspberries  there  are  three  types,  the  black,  the  red  and  the 
purple,  that  are  grown  commercially  in  this  country;  while  a second  type 
of  red,  bearing  yellow  berries,  is  grown  for  special  markets  and  as  a cur- 
iosity, but  is  not  adapted  to  general  commercial  purposes.  Of  these  the 
black  raspberry,  commonly  known  as  the  blackcap,  is  the  most  important 
for  commercial  planting  in  Missouri,  adapting  itself  to  a wider  range  of 
environmental  conditions  and  producing  berries  that  are  firmer,  more 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


easily  picked,  handled  and  marketed  and  adapted  to  a more  varied  use 
than  the  red  or  purple  raspberries. 

Our  cultivated  blackberries  have  been  derived  from  several  different 
native  species  and  combinations  of  these  different  species.  There  is  con- 
sequently a great  variation  between  the  different  varieties  of  the  black- 
berry group,  especially  if  the  dewberry  and  the  various  hybrids  between 
the  dewberry  and  the  blackberry  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  same 
general  class. 


CHARACTERISTICS 

Under  favorable  conditions  for  development  the  black  raspberry  pro- 
duces strong,  vigorous,  arched,  blackish  purple  canes  with  stiff  prickers. 


Fig.  1. — The  Cuthbert  (red  raspberry)  as  grown  on  the  trial  grounds  at  Turner,  Mo. 


The  canes  of  the  purple  raspberry  make  the  same  general  type  of  growth 
but  are  lighter  in  color  and  more  vigorous  than  those  of  the  blackcap. 
Both  produce  their  new  shoots  from  underground  buds  on  the  old  canes, 
near  the  base  of  the  original  plant. 

The  red  raspberry  canes  are  light  brown  to  reddish  brown  in  color, 
and  generally  rather  slender  and  upright  in  habit  of  growth.  The  Cuthbert, 
as  it  has  been  grown  on  the  Station  grounds,  often  branches,  producing 
long  laterals,  which  do  not  have  the  stiff,  arched  appearance  of  the  black 
and  purple  raspberries,  but  present  a rather  loose,  straggly  appearance. 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


The  red  raspberry  produces  new  canes,  both  from  buds  near  the  base 
of  the  old  plant,  and  growth  coming  from  adventitious  buds  on  the  roots. 
This  sucker  producing  habit  is  a very  undesirable  one,  sometimes  making 
it  very  difficult  to  keep  the  plants  within  bounds. 

The  blackberry  has  the  same  sucker-producing  habit  as  the  red  rasp- 
berry, and  anyone  who  has  tried  to  exterminate  a blackberry  patch  knows 
with  what  tenacity  it  will  hold  cn  and  continue  to  send  up  shoots  from 
every  root  or  piece  of  root  left  in  the  ground. 

The  blackberry  canes  have  a decidedly  upright  habit  of  growth,  while 
the  dewberry  trails  over  the  ground.  The  hybrids  between  the  black- 
berry and  dewberry  occupy,  in  habit  of  growth,  a position  intermediate 
between  the  two  and  might  be  classed  as  semi-upright  or  semi-trailing. 
Some  of  these  hybrids  are  rather  upright  with  fairly  long  laterals;  while 
others,  like  the  McDonald,  are  only  slightly  upright  with  long  trailing 
laterals,  reaching  in  some  cases  the  length  of  the  dewberry  runners. 

With  all  the  brambles,  the  fruit  is  borne  in  terminal  clusters  on  la- 
teral shoots  arising  the  same  year  the  fruit  is  produced.  These  shoots 
come  out  from  buds  on  the  main  cane,  or  from  laterals  that  grew  the 
year  before.  As  the  fruit  is  produced  on  the  terminals  of  the  shoots,  hg 
further  growth  is  made  after  the  fruit  is  produced,  and  the  canes  die  as 
soon  as  the  crop  is  matured.  Thus,  we  have  in  our  ordinary  varieties 

perennial  plants  with  biennial  canes,  a new  crop  of  these  canes  being  pro- 

duced each  season  to  replace  those  that  have  fruited  and  died. 

With  some  of  these  fruits,  especially  the  blackcap  and  some  varieties 
of  blackberries,  the  clusters  of  berries  are  very  dense  and  compact;  while 
with  others,  notably  the  red  raspberry,  and  to  some  extent  the  dewberry, 
the  fruit  clusters  are  loose.  Typically  the  center  flowers  of  the  dew- 
berry and  raspberry  clusters  bloom  first,  and  generally  the  fruits  pro- 
duced from  these  flowers  ripen  first.  In  the  case  of  the  true  blackberry 

the  lower  and  outer  flowers  of  the  clusters  open  first. 


PROPAGATION 

The  black  and  most  of  the  purple  raspberries  naturally  propagate  them- 
selves from  plants  produced  at  the  tips  of  the  branches.  In  order  to 
secure  new  plants,  then,  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  sure  the  tips  are  cov- 
ered with  soil  in  early  fall.  This  can  be  most  conveniently  and  easily 
done  by  cultivating  the  bed  very  thoroughly  in  August,  which  will  result 
in  a large  percentage  of  the  tips  being  covered  either  from  the  process 
of  cultivation  or  through  the  action  of  subsequent  rains.  The  rooted 
tips  are  generally  left  attached  to  the  parent  plant  until  the  following 
spring  when  the  laterals  are  cut  several  inches  above  the  ground  and  the 
rooted  tips  lifted,  packed  and  stored,  or  set  directly  in  the  permanent  bed. 

The  red  raspberry  and  blackberry  which  produce  new  plants  from 
roots  may  be  propagated  either  by  lifting  and  transplanting  the  sucker 
plants,  or  by  making  root  cuttings.  When  using  the  former  method  for 
establishing  a new  plantation,  root  sprouts  which  are  one  year  old  are  best 
adapted  for  transplanting,  although  the  young  succulent  sprouts  can  be 
transplanted  if  a portion  of  the  mother  root  is  removed  with  the  sprout. 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 

When  propagating  by  root  cuttings  on  a large  scale  it  is  necessary  to  dig 
up  and  destroy  the  old  rows.  Roots  the  size  of  a lead  pencil  are  the 
best,  but  roots  somewhat  larger  or  smaller  can  be  used.  They  are  cut 
into  lengths  of  two  or  three  inches,  packed  and  stored  in  damp  sand  or 
sawdust,  where  they  will  not  freeze,  until  spring,  when  they  are  dropped 
two  or  three  inches  apart  in  shallow  furrows  and  covered  with  about  three 
inches  of  loose,  sandy  soil.  No  buds  are  on  the  roots  when  cut,  but  ad- 
ventitious buds  develop  later,  and  by  spring  two  or  three  of  these  buds  can 
be  seen.  Generally,  after  one  year,  the  plants  will  have  made  enough  growth 
to  be  removed  to  the  permanent  plantation.  If  the  growth  has  been  slow 
they  should  be  allowed  to  remain,  another  year  in  the  nursery  row. 

The  red  raspberry  suckers  very  freely,  so  in  ordinary  practice  pro- 
pagation by  means  of  root  cuttings  is  seldom  resorted  to.  With  the  black- 
berry, however,  both  methods  are  in  use.  Those  varieties  which  sucker 
freely  are  propagated  by  sprouts,  while  those  that  naturally  sucker  very 
little  are  generally  propagated  by  root  cuttings. 

Additional  plants  of  the  dewberry  may  be  secured  either  by  rooting  the 
tips,  or  by  using  suckers  or  root  cuttings. 


SITE 

The  most  important  factor  in  the  selection  of  a site  for  the  berr> 
plantation  is  the  soil.  In  general  the  land  should  be  fairly  rich,  and  well 
supplied  with  humus,  for  the  production  of  strong  vigorous  canes.  If  the 
soil  is  not  already  well  supplied  with  humus,  it  can  be  added  by  plow- 
ing under  cover  crops,  or  by  the  addition  of  barnyard  manure.  Although 
the  brambles  must  be  well  supplied  with  water,  the  soil  in  which  they 
grow  must  be  well  drained. 

The  black  raspberry  will  adapt  itself  and  do  well  upon  a greater  var- 
iety of  soils  than  any  of  the  other  raspberries,  but  it  does  best  in  a rich 
clay  loam  topsoil  with  a more  clayey  subsoil  which  is  retentive  of  mois- 
ture. It  will,  however,  do  well  on  a rather  sandy  soil  well  supplied  with 
manure  and  water.  In  fact  a better  yield  will  be  secured  on  such  a soil 
well  handled  than  on  the  ideal  soil  poorly  managed. 

The  red  raspberry  thrives  on  a lighter  and  more  sandy  soil  than 
the  black,  but  does  well  on  any  soil  from  a sandy  to  a clayey  loam,  pro- 
vided other  conditions  are  suitable  for  its  growth.  The  purple  raspberry, 
as  might  be  expected  from  the  fact  that  it  is  a cross  between  the  black 
raspberry  and  red  raspberry,  is  intermediate  between  the  two  in  its  soil 
requirements.  It  does  best  upon  a silty  loam  soil. 

The  blackberry,  like  the  black  raspberry,  requires  a rather  clayey 
loam,  but  not  so  rich  as  the  black  raspberry  demands.  A soil  too  rich 
will  stimulate  vegetative  growth  at  the  expense  of  fruit  production.  A 
sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  unless  underlaid  with  porous  clay  subsoil,  is  not  at 
all  suited  to  the  growing  of  blackberries.  Such  a soil  tends  to  become  too 
hot  and  dry  just  at  the  time  when  the  blackberry  is  maturing  its  crop  and 
jn  need  of  a great  amount  of  water. 

The  dewberry  is  found  in  the  wild  state  growing  upon  rather  sandy 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


7 


well-drained  soils,  and  it  is  on  such  soils  that  it  will  probably  do  its  best 
under  cultivation. 

The  next  factor  in  importance  after  soil,  in  the  selection  of  a site,  is 
drainage,  both  atmospheric  and  soil.  Since  these  fruits  ordinarily  bloom 
late  enough  to  escape  the  spring  frosts  atmospheric  drainage  is  not  so 
important  from  the  standpoint  of  spring  frosts  as  from  the  standpoint 
of  winter  injury.  If  the  plantation  is  located  on  a hillside  high  enough 
that  the  cold  air  can  drain  away  to  lower  lands,  the  amount  of  winter 
injury  to  the  canes  will  be  found  to  be  less  than  where  the  plants  are 
located  in  “pockets”  or  on  low  lands.  A location  which  has  good  atmos- 
pheric drainage  generally  has  good  soil  drainage.  All  poorly  drained 
spots  should  be  avoided,  as  the  canes  are  more  liable  to  winter  injury 
in  such  places. 

If  a north  or  northeastern  exposure  is  available  it  should  be  used,  as 
such  a slope  is  more  moist  and  cooler  than  other  slopes.  This  is,  how- 
ever, the  least  important  factor  in  the  selection  erf  a site  and  should  be 
the  last  insisted  upon  when  it  is  impossible  to  find  the  ideal  location. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL 

Preparatory  to  planting  it  is  advisable  to  grow  on  the  land  some  in- 
tensively cultivated  or  hoed  crop  to  rid  the  land  as  much  as  possible  of 
weeds,  or  if  the  land  is  lacking  in  humus  better  still  to  plant  it  to  some 
cover  crop  to  be  turned  under. 

The  plowing  may  be  done  either  in  the  fall  or  early  spring.  The 
land  should  be  deeply  plowed,  especially  the  heavier  soils,  and  reduced 
to  a fine  state  of  tilth.  Plowing  to  a depth  of  about  8 inches,  using  a 
steep  moldboard  to  pulverize  the  furrow  slice,  followed  by  a thorough 
disking  and  harrowing  will  put  the  land  in  good  condition.  If  a cover 
crop  is  not  turned  under  it  is  advisable  to  work  in  a liberal  supply  of  man- 
ure, as  the  bed  will  probably  stand  five  to  ten  years  and  humus  can  be 
more  easily  added  to  the  soil  at  this  time  than  after  planting. 


NURSERY  STOCK 

Very  often  in  putting  out  a new  plantation  a grower  will  select  plants 
from  his  old  one,  or  from  his  neighbor’s.  This  may  be  done  without  dan- 
ger, if  the  old  plants  are  healthy,  vigorous  and  practically  free  of  disease; 
but  generally  it  is  better  to  buy  nursery  stock  from  reliable  nurserymen 
who  make  it  a practice  to  grow  their  plants  from  young  and  healthy  stock. 

Any  plants  affected  with  crown  gall  should  be  thrown  out  as  they  are 
generally  weakened  and  will  not  prove  as  productive  as  perfectly  healthy 
ones.  Crown  gall  can  be  recognized  by  the  knots  which  appear  on  the 
roots  and  about  the  crown  of  the  plants. 

If  the  plants  are  not  to  be  set  as  soon  as  received,  they  should  be 
unpacked  and  heeled  in  to  prevent  drying  out  or  rotting.  For  heeling  in 
a trench  is  dug  with  the  back  side  sloped  at  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees 
and  deep  enough  that  the  plants  can  be  covered  as  deeply  as  when  they 
stood  in  the  nursery.  The  plants  should  be  spread  out  one  layer  deep 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


along  the  trench  and  covered  with  moist  soil  well  packed  about  the  roots. 
If  the  plants  are  dry  they  should  be  watered. 

Just  before  setting,  if  the  day  is  warm  and  sunny,  the  roots  should  be 
dipped  in  a puddle  of  clay  and  water  to  protect  them  from  the  drying 
effect  of  the  sun  and  wind,  and  the  old  canes  cut  back  to  4 to  6 inches 
to  prevent  them  from  throwing  out  flowering  shoots  which  will  weaken, 
the  small  and  poorly  established  plants.  There  is  no  harm  in  cutting  the 
cane  shorter  as  the  main  purpose  it  serves  is  to  mark  the  row  after  setting. 
For  protection  against  dry  weather  it  is  advisable  to  set  the  plants  a little 
deeper  than  they  stood  in  the  nursery.  Care  should  be  used,  however, 
with  the  black  and  purple  raspberries,  not  to  set  the  crown  deeper  than 
two  inches  as  there  is  danger  of  smothering  out  the  plants.  Ordinarily 
the  red  raspberry  and  blackberry  are  set  2 to  4 inches  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 


SETTING  THE  PLANTS 

The  best  time  for  setting  plants  is  in  the  early  spring,  but  they  can 
be  planted  in  the  fall,  if  mulched  with  a fine  layer  of  straw  for  pro- 
tection during  the  winter.  It  is  very  important  that  they  be  set  early  in 
the  spring  before  growth  has  started.  If  setting  is  delayed  too  long  there 
is  danger  of  breaking  off  the  shoots  or  their  tender  tips.  Furthermore, 
the  roots  which  have  started  growing  will  be  injured  in  moving,  and 
drought  may  set  in  before  the  plants  have  become  well  established,  with 
a resultant  reduction  of  the  stand  to  a half  or  a third.  There  will  be 
no  trouble  in  securing  a full  stand  if  the  plants  are  set  at  the  right  time 
and  with  proper  precautions. 

The  actual  setting  may  be  done,  either  by  digging  holes  into  which 
the  plants  are  set;  or  by  pushing  a spade  into  the  ground,  then  pushing 
it  forward  and  dropping  the  plant  into  place,  removing  the  spade  and  tamp- 
ing the  soil  firmly  about  the  plant,  much  as  sweet  potato  slips  are  set. 
Still  another  method  of  planting  is  to  plow  deep  furrows  along  the  rows 
and  in  these  the  plants  are  set.  No  trouble  need  be  taken  to  fill  the  deep 
furrows  between  the  plants,  as  this  can  be  done  by  later  cultivation. 


PLANTING  DISTANCES 

As  grown  in  Missouri,  raspberries  and  blackberries  are  generally  set 
in  rows,  the  plants  3 to  4 feet  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  rows  6 to  8 feet 
apart.  Distances  less  than  this  often  result  in  crowding,  while  distances 
greater  than  this  generally  involve  a waste  of  land.  If  land  is  compara- 
tively cheap,  it  may  be  advisable  under  some  conditions  to  set  the  rows 
far  enough  apart  to  cultivate  the  middles  with  a disk.  For  planting  one 
acre  with  plants  set  3 feet  apart  in  rows  7 feet  apart  2,074  plants  will  be 
required.  With  plants  set  4 feet  apart  and  the  rows  8 feet  apart  1,361 
plants  will  be  necessary.  Dewberries  are  generally  set  3 feet  apart  in 
rows  6 to  7 feet  apart. 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


9 


CULTIVATION 

Because  of  their  habit  of  growth  the  purple  and  black  raspberries  do 
not  spread,  but  grow  in  clumps  from  the  plants  originally  set.  With  them 
it  is  no  trouble  to  keep  the  plants  within  bounds  and  the  rows  as  orig- 
inally set.  The  red  raspberry  and  the  blackberry,  which  may  send  up 
shoots  anywhere  from  the  roots,  are  in  many  cases  allowed  to  form  a 
matted  row  from  20  to  24  inches  wide.  With  them  it  is  sometimes  quite 
a problem  to  keep  the  middles  clean,  and  the  rows  straight  and  of  proper 
width.-  This  can,  however,  be  accomplished  by  shallow  plowing  in  the 
spring,  throwing  the  furrows  away  from  the  rows.  Plowing  to  the  depth 
of  3 or  4 inches  is  sufficient  and  in  no  case  should  it  be  deeper  than  4 
inches  as  so  many  roots  will  then  be  injured  as  to  cause  a dense  growth 
of  sprouts. 

Cultivation  with  a spring  tooth  cultivator  or  five-shovel  cultivator  should 
begin  at  once  after  the  plowing,  keeping  up  a constant  and  thorough 
stirring  of  the  soil  until  picking  time.  If  plowing  is  not  done,  cultivation 
should  begin  early  enough  to  keep  ahead  of  the  weeds  and  suckers. 

It  is  desirable  to  maintain  a dust  mulch,  but  the  soil  should  not  be 
stirred  to  a depth  of  more  than  2 or  3 inches  as  some  of  the  roots  are  so 
near  the  surface  that  they  will  be  injured.  Some  growers  shorten  the  cul- 
tivator teeth  or  set  them  shallow  on  the  side  next  to  the  rows  so  as  not 
to  disturb  the  small  feeding  roots  near  the  surface.  During  the  ripening 
season  of  the  raspberries  cultivation  is  sometimes  discontinued,  but  it  is 
generally  better  to  continue  to  cultivate  the  middles  unless  it  stirs  up 
enough  dust  to  injure  the  berries.  Cultivation  so  close  as  to  injure  or 
knock  berries  from  the  canes  is  to  be  avoided. 

Thorough  cultivation  and  conservation  of  moisture  in  the  case  of  the 
blackberry  cannot  be  over  emphasized  as  the  blackberry  is  supporting  and 
maturing  a heavy  crop  of  fruit  when  the  weather  is  normally  the  hottest 
and  driest. 

To  keep  the  weeds  out  of  the  matted  rows  at  least  two  hoeings  will 
be  necessary,  one  in  the  spring  and  one  in  the  fall;  and,  if  the  weeds  are 
very  bad,  a third  hoeing  in  midsummer  will  be  necessary.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  keep  the  matted  rows  clean  by  the  use  of  a horse  cultivator. 

Cultivation  late  into  the  fall,  which  tends  to  develop  new  growth  and 
to  prevent  the  hardening  off  of  canes,  is  undesirable. 

For  the  home  garden  the  berry  patch  can  be  mulched  to  very  good 
advantage.  Straw  applied  to  the  depth  of  about  6 inches  will  prove  satis- 
factory. Such  a mulch  keeps  down  weeds,  checks  evaporation  and  does 
away  with  the  necessity  of  cultivation.  Its  use  cannot  be  recommended 
at  present  for  large  commercial  plantations. 


FERTILIZATION 

The  question  of  fertilization  is  a very  much  disputed  one,  some  grow- 
ers favoring  it,  some  condemning  it.  This  doubtless  is  due,  in  large  part, 
to  the  many  different  soils  on  which  the  brambles  are  grown.  Unfor- 
tunately there  are  not  at  present  enough  reliable  experimental  data  along 


10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


this  line  to  warrant  any  definite  fertilizer  recommendations.  Each  grow- 
er must  determine  the  needs  of  his  soil,  by  the  application  of  fertilizers 
to  small  blocks  and  by  noting  the  effect  upon  cane  growth,  yield  and 
quality  of  fruit. 

Of  the  fertilizers  used,  barnyard  manure  is  the  most  popular,  adding 
nitrogen  and  humus  to  the  soil,  both  of  which  favor  the  development  of 
strong,  vigorous  canes.  It  should  be  applied  in  the  late  fall  or  early  spring. 
The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  containing  large  amounts  of  quickly  avail* 
able  nitrogen,  or  the  excessive  use  of  barnyard  manure,  apparently  is  danger- 


Fig.  2. — The  Robinson  blackberry  before  thinning  and  pruning.  Note  the  mass  of  canes 
and  laterals  near  the  center.  Compare  with  Fig.  3. 


ous,  as  it  causes  excessive  cane  and  leaf  growth  at  the  expense  of  fruit 
production.  The  usual  application  of  barnyard  manure  is  from  5 to  10 
tons  per  acre. 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 

Each  spring  the  raspberries,  blackberries  and  dewberries  send  up  many 
new  shoots  from  near  the  base  of  the  old  crown,  or  from  adventitious 
buds  formed  on  the  roots,  to  replace  the  fruiting  canes  which  die  as  soon 
as  the  fruit  is  matured.  The  method  of  pruning  and  training  these  shoots 
will  vary  according  to  the  kind  of  fruit  or  variety  grown.  ' 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


11 


The  pruning  practices  for  the  blackberries  and  the  raspberries,  with 
the  exception  of  the  red  raspberry  are  very  much  the  same.  In  order 
to  prevent  the  new  shoots  from  making  long,  weak  canes  to  bend  or 
break  down  into  the  dirt  with  a heavy  crop  of  fruit,  the  tips  are  pinched 
out  as  soon  as  they  have  reached  a height  of  18  to  20  inches  (possibly 
longer  with  the  purple  raspberry  and  the  ranker  growing  varieties  of 
blackberries).  This  shortens,  thickens  and  strengthens  the  shoot  and  in- 
duces the  formation  of  from  four  to  six  laterals  near  the  top.  It  is  on 
these  laterals  that  the  fruiting  shoots  are  later  produced.  To  prevent 
overbearing,  these  laterals  must  be  shortened,  preferably  in  early  spring 


Fig.  3. — The  Robinson  blackberry  after  thinning  the  canes  and  laterals  and  shortening  the 
vigorous  laterals  remaining. 


before  growth  starts.  Shortening  the  laterals  of  the  blackberry  and  black 
raspberry  to  8 to  12  inches  leaves  enough  buds  to  produce  a good  crop  of 
large,  well-formed  berries.  In  the  case  of  the  purple  raspberry,  which  pro- 
duces its  fruit  farther  out  on  the  laterals  it  is  necessary  to  leave  them  12 
to  18  inches  long. 

As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  produced  the  old  canes  die  and  should  be  re- 
moved at  once  to  give  the  young  canes  more  room  and  sunlight,  and  to 
check  the  spread  of  disease  and  insect  pests.  At  this  time  the  new 
shoots  of  the  raspberry  are  thinned  so  that  there  will  be  four  or  five 
strong,  vigorous  canes  to  each  plant.  Blackberries,  because  of  their  ten- 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


dency  to  throw  up  new  and  weak  .shoots,  should  not  be  thinned  until  spring 
at  the  time  the  laterals  are  shortened.  They  are  then  thinned  to  leave 
strong,  vigorous  canes  8 to  10  inches  apart. 

Because  of  the  likelihood  of  producing  tender  laterals,  pinching  out  the 
tips  of  the  red  raspberry  shoots  is  not  practiced  in  this  section  of  the 
country.  The  only  pruning  done  is  the  removal  of  the  old  canes  as  soon 
as  they  have  fruited,  and  in  the  spring  thinning  the  fruiting  canes  to  stand 
about  8 inches  apart. 

Ordinarily  no  method  of  supporting  or  trellising  is  used  in  growing 
raspberries  in  Missouri,  but  it  has  been  found  advisable  on  the  trial  grounds 


Fig.  4. — The  black  raspberry  as  it  looks  before  pruning.  Note  the  mass  of  long  laterals,  also 
the  thickness  of  the  clump  to  the  left.  Compare  with  Fig.  5. 


at  Columbia  to  support  the  canes  of  the  black  and  purple  raspberries  with 
a horizontal  trellis.  If  this  is  not  done  and  the  plantation  is  exposed  to 
strong  winds,  many  of  the  new  shoots  are  likely  to  be  broken  down.  This 
will  have  a decided  effect  upon  next  year’s  crop  for  it  is  then  too  late  for 
these  shoots  to  be  replaced  with  others.  Besides  trellising,  this  brings  out 
the  advisability  of  locating  the  plantation  in  a sheltered  spot  whenever  it 
is  possible. 

The  horizontal  trellis  may  be  constructed  by  setting  large  posts  at  the 
end  of  each  row,  with  lighter  posts  at  intervals  of  20  to  30  feet.  Cross- 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


13 


arms  18  inches  long  are  nailed  to  each  post  at  a height  of  20  to  30  inches, 
depending  upon  the  vigor  of  the  cane  growth.  A wire  is  then  stretched 
tightly  on  either  side  of  the  row  and  securely  fastened  to  the  ends  of  the 
cross-arms. 

Such  a trellis  is  easily  constructed,  permanent  and  of  neat  appearance. 
It  prevents  the  new  growth  from  being  whipped  about  by  the  wind  or 
bent  over  and  broken,  and  it  supports  the  fruiting  canes,  holding  them 
out  of  the  mud  and  dirt  and  out  of  the  way  of  cultivation. 

A trellis  has  not  been  found  necessary  for  blackberries  and  the  red 
raspberries,  except  the  Cuthbert  which  sometimes  forms  long  straggling 
laterals. 

Under  Missouri  conditions,  probably  the  best  method  of  handling  the 
dewberry  is  simply  to  allow  it  to  trail  on  the  ground.  This  is  much  cheap- 


Fig.  5. — The  black  raspberry  as  it  looks  after  pruning.  The  end  post  and  wires  of  the 

trellis  are  also  shown. 


er  than  tieing  or  training  it  to  stakes  or  wires,  and  the  yield  is  probably 
as  large.  The  only  serious  fault  of  this  system  is  the  difficulty  of  mak- 
ing clean  pickings,  as  the  berries  are  concealed  by  the  foliage.  A modi- 
fication of  this  system,  which  may  facilitate  picking,  is  that  of  stretching 
a wire' along  the  row  and  over  this  the  vines  are  thrown. 

The  only  pruning  necessary  is  the  removal  of  the  old  canes  ,and  the 
cutting  out  of  the  weak  growth  in  the  spring. 

LIFE  OF  PLANTATION 

The  length  of  time  a plantation  will  remain  profitable  depends  upon 
soil  conditions,  diseases  and  care.  If  the  moisture  supply  is  inadequate  or 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  overbear,  few,  if  any,  new  canes  are  developed 
and  the  plants  are  weakened  or  killed.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  black 
raspberry.  Under  present  conditions  and  cultural  methods  the  life  of  a 
plantation  in  Missouri  is  from  live  to  ten  years.  In  some  parts  of  the 
country  plantations  twice  that  age  are  still  bearing  good  crops. 


HARVESTING 

Raspberries  are  ready  to  pick  as  soon  as  they  will  readily  separate 
from  the  receptacle.  At  that  time  they  are  not  so  easily  bruised  in  pick- 
ing and  handling,  w'ill  hold  up  better  under  shipment  and  are  not  so  sub- 
ject to  the  attacks  of  fungi  as  when  allowed  to  become  fully  ripe. 

Blackberries  do  not  reach  their  highest  state  of  perfection  until  fully 
ripe  and  to  be  at  their  best  must  be  eaten  soon  after  picking.  As  the 
fruit  colors  before  it  is  ripe,  it  should  be  allowed  to  become  soft  before 
picking  for  home  use.  For  shipment  the  blackberry  should  be  picked  as 
soon  as  it  separates  fairly  easily  from  the  cluster.  This  lessens  deteriora- 
tion in  marketing. 

In  picking,  three  fingers  should  be  used  and  but  few  berries  should 
be  held  in  the  hand  at  one  time.  The  fruits  should  be  placed,  not  dropped, 
into  the  containers.  They  are  picked  directly  into  the  pint  or  quart  boxes 
in  which  they  are  to  be  marketed.  Additional  handling  of  these  soft  fruits 
will  result  in  broken  skins  and  this  detracts  from  their  appearance  and 
hastens  deterioration. 

The  pickers  use  trays  or  carriers  holding  from  four  to  six  boxes.  The 
use  of  carriers  holding  more  than  six  quarts  is  to  be  discouraged,  as  the 
berries  first  picked  are  exposed  to  the  sun  so  long  that  the  fruit  becomes 
overheated  and  damaged.  Blackberries,  when  exposed  to  the  sun  for  long 
periods,  turn  red  and  develop  a bitter  taste. 

All  grading,  except  where  the  packer  separates  the  boxes  of  fruit  ac- 
cording to  the  picker  or  the  appearance  on  top,  is  done  by  the  picker.  The 
picker  reserves  one  or  two  boxes  in  the  carrier  for  the  decayed,  over-ripe, 
green,  misshapen,  and  injured  berries.  The  carriers  when  full  should  be 
placed  in  the  shade  under  the  canes  and  gathered  up  later  by  a person 
whose  duty  it  is  to  bring  in  the  full  trays,  or  they  may  be  brought  directly 
to  the  packing  shed  by  the  pickers. 

The  best  time  for  picking  is  in  the  morning  as  soon  as  the  dew  is 
off  and  while  it  is  still  cool.  At  this  time  the  berries  are  cool,  and  the 
pickers  do  much  better  work  than  in  the  heat  of  day.  Not  only  are  warm 
berries  harder  to  cool,  but  the  thin  membraneous  covering  is  weaker  and 
more  easily  broken  in  picking  and  handling. 


PAYING  THE  PICKERS 

Two  general  methods  are  used  in  paying  pickers;  one  by  the  hour, 
the  other  by  piece  work.  Both  have  their  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
The  great  disadvantages  in  piece  work  include  the  tendency  of  the  pickers 
to  fill  their  boxes  as  fast  as  they  can  with  little  regard  to  grading  and 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


15 


.careful  handling,  and  their  fondness  for  picking  where  the  berries  are  the 
thickest  and  leaving  the  scattering  fruit.  Better  grading  can  generally 
be  secured  by  paying  slightly  more  per  box  for  the  cull  berries.  Most 
pickers  must  be  watched  constantly  and  checked  to  secure  clean  picking 
and  careful  handling.  In  order  to  hold  pickers  at  the  end  of  the  sea* 
son  when  the  berries  become  scattering  it  is  often  necessary  to  give  them 
more  per  quart  or  give  a bonus  to  those  who  stay  throughout  the  season. 
On  the  other  hand  paying  by  the  hour  is  expensive  as  few  if  any  of  the. 
pickers  will  work  at  a maximum  speed. 

There  are  three  general  methods  of  keeping  a record  of  the  number 
of  berries  gathered  by  each  picker.  The  first  and  least  satisfactory  is 
the  daybook  system  where  the  foreman  merely  enters  the  pickers  name, 
the  date  and  the  number  of  quarts  picked.  The  two  better  methods  are 
the  check  system,  and  the  punch-card  system.  In  the  check  system  each 
picker  is  given  a check  for  each  quart  or  tray  brought  in.  These  checks 
are  kept  by  the  picker  and  turned  in  on  pay  day.  They  are  best  made 
of  some  metal  such  as  aluminum  and  stamped  with  the  design  of  the 
fruits  being  harvested;  they  are  generally  in  denominations  of  1 pint  or  1 
quart,  and  1 tray  (4  to  6 boxes).  In  the  punch-card  system  each  picker 
is  given  a card  much  like  a shipping  tag  in  outline.  On  this  card  is  writ- 
ten the  picker’s  name  and  the  rate  per  quart  he  is  to  be  paid,  and  around 
the  margin  are  printed  numbers  which  are  punched  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  quarts  brought  in  by  the  picker.  In  using  this  system  the  punch 
must  be  changed  frequently  to  prevent  the  picker  securing  and  using  a 
punch  of  like  design.  Various  modifications  of  this  system  as  to  arrange- 
ment, the  length  of  time  the  cards  will  last  and  the  number  of  cards  used, 
are  in  use. 

With  any  system  frequent  pay  days  are  necessary  to  prevent  discon- 
tent and  to  avoid  chances  of  error. 


PACKAGES 

The  24-quart  crate  as  used  for  strawberries  is  perhaps  the  best  crate  in 
which  to  market  dewberries,  blackberries  and  black  raspberries.  A 32  or 
48-quart  crate  might  be  used  when  marketing  locally,  but  for  shipping 
such  crates  are  too  large.  The  added  weight  of  fruit  above  tends  to  crush 
the  berries  in  the  boxes  near  the  bottom.  Furthermore  the  24-quart  crate 
best  meets  the  demands  of  the  customer  buying  in  crate  lots  for  putting 
up  at  home. 

The  American  style  one-quart  box  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  popu- 
lar of  the  quart  boxes.  They  are  made  up  at  the  factory  and  shipped 
nested,  and  there  is  no  expense  or  inconvenience  of  making  up  at  home. 
They  fit  into  the  American  24-quart  crate  in  three  tiers  of  eight  boxes 
each,  with  a divider  between  each  two  tiers. 

The  purple  and  red  raspberries  are  best  marketed  in  shallow  pint 
boxes.  They  are  rarely  marketed  in  quart  boxes,  except  where  the  mar- 
kets are  very  conservative  and  demand  the  quart  box.  The  weight  of 
the  extra  berries  in  the  quart  box  will  crush  those  near  the  bottom;  and 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 

generally,  because  of  the  high  price  of  the  red  raspberry,  the  consumer 
prefers  to  buy  in  pints. 

To  comply  with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Net  Weight  Amend- 
ment to  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  the  shipper,  when  shipping  to  another 
state,  must  stamp  plainly  on  the  outside  of  the  package  the  contents  and 
number  of  open  packages  contained,  in  terms  of  the  largest  unit  con- 
tained. For  example,  the  24-quart  crate  would  be  marked, — “Contents  24 
dry  quarts,”  or  “This  crate  contains  24  dry  quarts.”  Further,  the  standard- 
ization of  the  berry  box  makes  it  illegal  to  ship  from  state  to  state,  berry 
boxes  which  do  not  contain  in  cubical  contents  one  pint,  one-half  pint, 
one  quart,  or  multiples  of  one  quart,  all  dry  measure. 

PACKING  SHED 

Some  sort  of  packing  shed  is  essential  in  the  small  fruit  industry.  It 
protects  the  fruit  from  the  hot  sun  and  rain,  creates  a central  packing  point 
and  provides  a storage  place  for  packing  material  and  equipment.  It  may 
be  a very  cheaply  constructed  affair,  consisting  only  of  a frame-work  and 
roof  that  will  keep  out  the  sun  and  rain,  or  it  may  be  more  substantially 
constructed  with  a storage  room  or  loft,  thoroughly  protected  from  the 
weather.  Such  a place  provides  a permanent  storage  place  for  packing 
material. 


YIELDS 

As  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  Tables  I to  IV  the  yields  vary  con- 
siderably from  year  to  year,  with  different  soil  and  environmental  condi- 
tions, and  with  different  varieties.  Under  ordinary  conditions  and  with 
good  care  the  black  raspberry  should  yield  from  1200  to  1800  quarts  per 
acre,  the  purple  raspberry  about  the  same,  and  the  red  raspberry,  under 
Missouri  conditions,  500  to  800  quarts.  Sometimes  very  large  yields  will 
be  secured  as  with  the  Kansas  grown  at  Columbia,  which  made  in  1910 
over  4000  quarts  per  acre.  Those  blackberry  varieties,  which,  when  given 
good  care,  will  not  average  1200  quarts  per  acre,  when  planted  4 feet  by  10 
feet,  are  not  adapted  to  commercial  planting.  Averages  of  1800  to  2000 
quarts  per  acre  may  be  regarded  as  good  yields. 

Upon  examination  of  the  tables  of  yield  of  blackberries  and  raspberries, 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  varieties  which  run  consistently  low  in  yield. 
Such  varieties  may  be  adapted  to  planting  in  the  home  garden  because  of 
some  other  quality  they  possess  in  a superior  degree,  but  they  should 
never  be  planted  in  a commercial  way.  The  red  raspberry,  even  with  the 
additional  price  paid  for  it,  is  not  nearly  so  profitable  as  the  blackcap. 
However,  the  fruit  of  the  purple-caned  varieties  is  usually  sold  as  a red 
raspberry  for  which,  as  a matter  of  fact,  it  is  an  acceptable  substitute  and 
there  are  varieties  of  this  group  that  are  profitable  under  Missouri  condi- 
tions. 


VARIETIES 


Black  raspberries — Almost  all  of  the  black  raspberries  tested  are  recog- 
nized standard  varieties,  and  consequently  the  differences  in  yield  are  not 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


17 


Table  I. — Yield  oe  Raspberries  1919. 


Original  Y 

eld  in  Quarts 

Total 

Perc’t 

Yield  per 

Gross  re- 

No.  of 

Varieties 

No.  of 

June  14 

June  20 

June  26 

Yield 

stand 

arce  in 

turns-per 

berries 

to 

to 

to 

l/ 

qts.  4’x8’ 

acret 

per  qt. 

Plants 

June  19 

June  25 

July  7 

V 

Blackcaps 

Turner 

Kansas 

Black 

80 

23.5 

18.0 

5.0 

46.5 

88 

904 

$ 271.20 

705 

Pearl 

160 

48.25 

58.5 

22.0 

128.75 

90 

1217 

365.10 

509 

Cumberl’d  160 

43.0 

93.5 

42.0 

178.5 

92 

1647 

■494.10 

488 

Plum 

Farmer 

160 

56.5 

53.25 

14.5 

124.25 

94 

1127 

336.10 

596 

Gregg 

80 

5.5 

55.0 

34.75 

95.25 

91 

1769 

531.70 

512 

Improved 

Gregg 

80 

15.25 

28.75 

11,25 

55.25 

93 

1017 

305.10 

488 

Blackcaps 

Columbia 

Kansas 

42 

24.75 

50.0 

9.5 

84.25 

100 

4148* 

1244.40 

* 589 

Conrath 

42 

13.5 

35.5 

10.25 

59.25 

100 

2924* 

877.20 

* 546 

Cumberl’d  42 

8.25 

42.75 

13.75 

64.75 

100 

3194* 

958.20 

* 517 

Purpleoano 

Turner 

Cardinal 

Columbia 

80 

.25 

32.0 

57.75 

90.00 

98 

1565 

547.75 

465 

Cardinal 

42 

8.25 

36.00 

45.00 

100 

2219* 

776.65 

* 

Red 

Turner 

Louden 

80 

8.0 

8.0 

5.25 

21.25 

94 

386 

135.10 

672 

Cuthbert 

160 

5.75 

18.25 

12.75 

36.75 

97 

322 

112.70 

445 

King 

80 

2.0 

8.0 

16.25 

26.25 

94 

480 

168.00 

568 

Red 

Columbia 

Eaton 

42 

1.75 

5.0 

6.75 

48 

699* 

244.65 

* 

Cuthbert 

42 

4.0 

14.0 

18.0 

100 

901* 

315.35 

* 

King 

42 

.25 

5.75 

13.0 

19.0 

95 

985* 

344.75 

* 

*3  feet  by  7 feet. 

tBlacks  at  30c  per  qt.,  Reds  and  Purple  at  35c  per  qt. 


Explanation  of  Tables  I to  IV. — The  blackberries,  and  those  raspberries  mark- 
ed Turner  were  grown  on  the  trial  grounds  at  Turner,  Missouri,  in  a soil  which  is 
a mixture  of  the  loess  soil  and  silty  loam.  Those  marked  Columbia  were  grown 
on  the  trial  grounds  at  Columbia  in  a heavy  silty  loam,  rich  and  reasonably  well 
drained. 

The  blackberries  at  Turner  were  set  4 feet  apart  in  rows  S feet  apart.  At  Col- 
umbia the  raspberries  were  set  3 feet  apart  in  rows  7 feet  apart.  As  was  to  be 
expected  very  few  of  the  varieties  came  into  bearing  with  a full  stand,  so  the 
percent  of  a stand  bearing  each  year  is  given;  and  the  yields  per  acre,  as  given, 
were  calculated  for  a full  stand  at  the  distance  planted. 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


so  great  as  they  otherwise  might  have  been,  except  where  the  influence 
of  the  two  types  of  soil  is  felt.  As  might  be  expected,  the  soil  at  Colum- 
bia, being  richer  and  better  supplied  with  humus  than  that  at  Turner,  gave 
much  larger  yields,  even  when  the  difference  in  distance  planted  is  taken 
into  consideration.  Of  the  varieties  grown  at  Turner,  the  Cumberland  and 
Gregg  gave  the  largest  yields,  while  at  Columbia  the  Kansas  and  Cum- 
berland were  the  highest  yielding  varieties.  Although  very  little  is  known 
of  the  adaptability  of  different  varieties  to  various  soil  types,  the  data 
given  carry  the  suggestion  that  Cumberland  and  Gregg  are  good  varieties 


Table  II. — Yield  oe  Raspberries  1920. 


Original  Yield  in  Quarts 

Total 

Yield 

Perc’t 

stand 

1/ 

Yield  per 
acre  in 
qts.  4’x8’ 

Gross  re- 
turns per 
acret 

1 acre 
Aver. 

yield 
of  2 yr. 
4’x8’ 

Varieties 

No.  of 
Plants 

June  19 
to 

June  26 

June  27 
to 

July  5 

July  6 
to 

July  14 

Blackcaps 
T urner 

Kansas 

80 

11.0 

3.25 

.25 

14.25 

54 

459 

$137.70 

681 

Black 

Pearl 

160 

22.75 

11.0 

.25 

34.0 

70 

414 

124.20 

816 

Cumberl’d  160 

12.75 

19.0 

2.0 

33.75 

76 

380 

114.00 

1013 

Plum 

Farmer 

160 

30.75 

10.25 

.25 

41.25 

81 

431 

129.30 

779 

Gregg 

80 

8.0 

9.0 

4.5 

21.5 

75 

487 

146.10 

1128 

Improved 
Gregg  80 

8.25 

4.0 

8.25 

81 

256 

76.80 

636 

Blackcaps 

Columbia 
Kansas  42 

30.5 

6.5 

37.0 

100 

1827* 

548.10* 

h 2987* 

Conrath 

42 

24.75 

13.0 

2.0 

39.75 

100 

1962* 

588.60* 

' 2443* 

Cumberl’d  42 

19.75 

16.25 

.75 

36.75 

100 

1815* 

544.50* 

> 2504* 

Purpleeane 

Turner 

Cardinal 

80 

1.25 

28.75 

16.0 

46.0 

91 

857 

299.95 

1211 

Columbia 
Cardinal  42 

1.0 

22.25 

5.0 

28.25 

100 

1396* 

488.60* 

1807* 

Red 

T urner 

Louden 

80 

16.0 

12.5 

3.0 

31.5 

94 

573 

205.55 

479 

Cuthbert 

160 

13.25 

32.0 

8.5 

53.75 

96 

476 

166.60 

399 

King 

80 

10.0 

9.75 

8.0 

27.75 

88 

539 

188.65 

509 

Red 

Columbia 
Eaton  42 

Most  of 

canes  winter  killed. 

. . .349* 

King 

42 

4.25 

1.75 

6.0 

100 

•309* 

108.15* 

> 647* 

Cuthbert 

42 

All  canes  winter  killed  to  ground 

450* 

*3  feet  x 7 feet. 

tBlacks  at  30c  per  qt.,  Reds  and  Purple  at  35c  per  qt. 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


19 


to  grow  on  the  poorer  soils,  while  the  Kansas  is  a very  good  one  for  the 
richer  soils  All  three  varieties,  Kansas,  Cumberland  and  Gregg 
are  strong,  vigorous  growers  and  hardy  enough  to  meet  Missour.  cond.- 
tions.  The  Kansas  is  a few  days  earlier  than  the  Cumberland,  while  the 
Gregg  is  the  last  of  the  three  to  ripen.  The  Kansas  is  sweeter  than  t e 
other  two,  but  runs  a little  smaller  in  size. 

Purple  raspberries— The  Cardinal  was  the  only  purple  raspberry  test- 
ed, but  the  yield  was  large  enough  to  make  it  a very  profitable  berry  to 
grow  wherever  it  can  be  disposed  of  quickly. 

Red  raspberries — N one  of  the  red  raspberries  proved  to  be  of  com- 
mercial value.  The  Cuthbert,  although  its  yields  were  a little  less  than 
those  of  some  of  the  other  varieties,  is  the  best  red  for  the  home  garden 
because  of  its  superiority  in  quality  and  flavor.  The  berries  do  not  have 
the  tendency  to  crumble  so  much  as  those  of  some  of  the  other  varieties. 


Table  III— Yield  oe  Blackberries  1919. 


Original 


Varieties 


No.  of 
plants 


June  17 
to  June 
25 


Yield  in  Quarts 


McDonald 

Early 

Harvest 

Robinson 

Blowers 

Ward 

Snyder 

Ambrosia. 

Lagrange 

Eldorado 

Ancient 

Briton 


80 

160 

160 

80 

160 

160 

80 

80 

80 

80 


109 


136 

89 


June  i26 
to  July 
4 

July  5 
to  July 
13 

July  14 
to  July 
21 

Julyl  22 
to  July 
29 

3 

3.75 

64 

13.25 

114 

67. 

3. 

1 

33. 

41.5 

14. 

1 

79. 

90.5 

16.75 

148.75 

129. 

11.25 

7.75 

8. 

1.75 

7.25 

28. 

18.5 

53.5 

46. 

9.25 

3. 

24.5 

16.5 

Total 

Yield 


Percent 

stand 


\J 


Yield 
per  acre 
Rows  10 
ft.  apart 


Returns 
per  acre 
at  20c 
per  qt. 


No.  oi 
ber- 
ries 
per  qt. 


115.75 

213.25 
273. 

89.5 

187.25 
289. 

17.5 
53.75 

108.75 


96.2 

84.4 

67.5 

86.3 

81.3 

93.8 

50.0 

75.0 

87.5 

68.8 


1658 

1738 

2792 

1429 

1588 

2126 

485 

988 

1715 

886 


331.60  264 


347.60 
458.40 
285.80 

317.60 

225.20 
97.00 

197.60 
343.00 

177.20 


508 

360 

270 

385 

471 

46o 

231 

221 

355 


The  everbearing  raspberry,  of  late  introduction,  has  been  widely  ad- 
vertised and  many  questions  have  been  asked  as  to  its  value'  N°”e°‘ 
the  varieties  of  everbearing  raspberries  have  been  grown  on  the  Stat  o 
grounds,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  type  will  prove  profitable  under  M s- 
souri  conditions,  except,  possibly,  in  a few  special  districts  where  the  con- 
sumer will  buy  regardless  of  the  price,  or  in  the  home  garden  where  cost 

1S  ° Bkckberrie^— The  blackberries  may  be  divided  roughly  into  the  early 
and  late  maturing  sorts.  The  early  varieties  include  the  Robinson,  Early 
Harvest,  and  McDonald,  the  last  named  a hybrid  between  the  blackberry 
and  dewberry.  The  late  varieties  include;  Blowers,  Ward,  Snyder,  A 
brosia  Lagrange,  Eldorado  and  Ancient  Briton.  In  general  the  early  var- 
ieties ’are  to  be  preferred,  because  they  ripen  before  the  wild  plants  and 
thus  avoid  competition  with  them  and  because  they  escape  or  partly  escape 
the  hot,  dry  weather  that  so  often  prevails  during  the  ordinary  ripening 
season  of  the  later  varieties. 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 

the  ear,y  varieties  mentioned,  the  Early  Harvest  is  the  he  t Tt 
McDonald  although  producing  very  large  dewberry-  * * berries  i,  ** 
uncertain  because  of  winter  killing.  The  low  yield  In  lotm  ! 

winter  injury  of  the  fruiting  wood  Also  because  of  it  , ?•  ^ ‘° 

h of  growth  and  f formidable  thorns,  picking  is  slow  and  Tple^'a"/  The" 
Robinson  because  of  its  great  susceptibility  to  rust  and  its  thieh  h V-,  t 
growth,  which  hides  many  of  the  berry  clusters  is  f ^ °* 

, fsszzzt.  r:;zx‘v::r^-  “ - 


Table  IV.— Yield  oe  Blackberries 


1920. 


Early 

Harvest 

Robinson 

Blowers 

Ward 

Snyder 

Ambrosia 

Lagrange 

Eldorado 

Ancient 

Briton 


80 

160 

160 

80 

160 

160 

80 

80 

80 

80 


30 


14 


Original 

Yield  in  Quarts 

Varieties 

No.  of 
plants 

June  21 
to  June 
28 

June  29 
to  July 
5 

July  6 
to  July 
12 

July  13 
to  July 
19 

July  20 
to  July 
26 

Total 

Yield 

Percent 

stand 

\) 

Yield 
per  acre 
Rows  10 
ft.'  apart 

Returns 
per  acre 
at  20c 
per  qt. 

110 

81 


*Rows  10  feet  apart. 


33. 

32. 

29.5 

39.5 
61. 

7.75 
7.2  5 

53.5 

3. 


14. 

3. 

33.25 

64. 

114.5 

8. 

28. 

46. 

24.5 


11.5 

21.5 
35.75 

1.75 

18.5 
9.25 

16.5 


30. 

245. 

130. 

74.25 

125. 

211.25 

17.5 

53.75 

108.75 

44. 


96.2 

85.6 

62.5 

87.5 

79.4 
93.8 
50.0 

72.5 

87.5 


1871 

1433 

1168 

1085 

1552 

256 

406 

750 


432  $ 86.40 


394.20 

286.60 

233.60 

217.00 
310.40 

51.20 

81.20 

150.00 


70.0  1028  205.60 


A SUCCESSION  OF  FRUITS 

out  the  summer.  In  this  way  the  work  is  spread  out  over  a per^d  of  sL 
FoTI  fun  tacd  ^ • ^Th  bUnChe<1  Within  3 period  °f  or  three  week," 

or  a lull  succession  the  grower  can  start  witL  +v,Q  *.  i 
will  start  ripening  in  May  and  last  until  June.  The  standard  *"? 
south  Missouri  is  the  Aroma,  while  the  Dunlan  is  thP  h r variety  for 
souri.  The  strawberry  may  be  fol.owedbytL  raspberry  ZtZ 
succession  the  following  varieties  are  to  be  recommended  in  th 
naTd:h  Kj*nSaS>  Cumberland  and  Gregg.  The  blackberry  ’type  *f  °fruit 
might  be  begun  with  the  Lucretia  dewberry  which  altho,nYP  / • * 

with  the  raspberry,  will  pay  well  for  the  extra  effo’rt llecesty To  h^'dle 


Aver, 
yield 
for  2 
yrs.* 


1045 

1854 

2112 

1298 

1336 

1839 

370 

697 

1232 

957 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


21 


it  at  this  time.  After  the  dewberry  will  come  the  Early  Harvest  black- 
berry followed  by  the  Snyder  or  Eldorado,  carrying  the  season  to  about 
the  first  of  August. 

For  a fall  crop  the  grape  may  be  planted,  beginning  with  some  of 
the  early  varieties  such  as  Daisy  (.black)  and  Moore's  Early  (black)  fol- 
lowed by  the  midseason  varieties  like  Concord  (black),  Worden  (black), 
Wyoming  Red  (red),  Niagara  (white)  and  Diamond  (white).  For  a later 
grape  the  Catawba  might  be  grown.  The  average  grower  will  find  it  best 
to  make  the  most  of  his  planting  of  Concord  or  Worden. 

The  above  is  merely  a suggestion,  and  the  grower  must  decide  for 
his  own  particular  conditions  whether  it  will  be  profitable  for  him  to  at- 
tempt to  grow  all  the  small  fruits  or  only  a part  of  them.  Also  he  must 
decide  the  amount  of  each  particular  fruit  and  variety  to  grow.  This  will 
depend  somewhat  upon  whether  the  grower  intends  to  ship  his  fruit  or 
sell  it  locally. 


INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

Insects — Of  the  insects  attacking  the  brambles,  none  is  of  sufficient 
importance  in  Missouri  at  present,  to  necessitate  the  use  of  any  special  re- 
medial measures. 

Diseases — Crown  gall — This  is  the  gall  or  swelling  which  appears  on 
the  roots  or  at  the  crown  of  the  plant  and  weakens  it,  the  affected  plant 
having  a sickly  appearance. 

Prevention.  Plant  only  healthy  nursery  stock  that  is  free  of  the  galls  on 
land  which  is  not  already  infected  with  the  disease  organism. 

Remedy.  Dig  out  and  destroy  all  affected  plants. 

Anthracnose — This  is  a very  common  and  very  serious  disease  of  the  black 
raspberry.  It  attacks  the  canes,  the  leaves,  and  the  fruit,  but  is  more  notice- 
able on  the  canes  on  which  it  produces  small  gray  elliptical  spots  from  a mere 
speck  to  three  or  four  times  the  size  of  a pin  head.  They  are  bordered  with 
a dark,  blackish  purple,  indefinite  and  narrow  band.  As  the  spots  near  ma- 
turity they  often  split  lengthwise  of  the  stem  and  the  interior  assumes  the 
color  of  dead  wood.  When  abundant  the  spots  coalesce  forming  large  patches 
of  diseased  bark.  In  bad  infestations  canes  may  be  girdled. 

Control.  This  disease  can  be  controlled  by  spraying,  but  this  is  not  to  be 
recommended  as  the  extra  yields  secured  do  not  pay  for  the  added  cost  of 
spraying.  The  plan  generally  recommended  for  holding  this  disease  in  check 
is  to  cut  out  all  the  old  canes  as  soon  as  they  have  fruited  and  all  the  badly 
infected  new  growth.  This  partly  removes  the  source  of  infection  and  opens 
up  the  interior  of  the  rows,  allowing  better  ventilation  and  more  sunlight. 
The  infected  canes  should  be  burned. 

Orange  Rust — This  is  a very  serious  disease  of  the  blackberry,  but  not  so 
troublesome  on  the  raspberry.  The  first  appearance  of  the  disease  is  on  the 
leaves  in  the  spring,  when  they  assume  a sickly,  yellowish  green  color.  A 
little  later  a glistening  orange  color  appears  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves  and  from  this  the  small,  dustlike  orange-colored  spores  break.  The 
spores  may  alight  upon  some  other  plant  where  they  germinate,  the  mycelial 
growth  spreading  through  the  leaves  of  the  host  plant  and  eventually  down 
the  stems  and  into  the  roots  where  it  lives  from  year  to  year. 


22  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


Control.  Because  of  its  habit  of  growth  it  is  impossible  to  control  Or- 
ange rust  once  it  has  gained  entrance  to  the  plant.  To  prevent  it  f-  om 
spreading  to  nearby  plants  the  affected  plants  should  be  dug  up  completely 
before  the  orange-colored  spores  break  out.  Also,  any  affected  wild  plants 
near  the  plantation  should  be  cut  out. 


STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  FOR  MISSOURI 

The  strawberry  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  small  fruits  grown 
in  Missouri.  This  is  due  to  many  factors,  chief  among  which  are  the  al- 
most universal  demand  for  this  fruit  when  it  is  in  season  and  the  fact 
that  certain  sections  in  this  state  seem  to  be  particularly  well  adapted  to 
its  commercial  production.  The  commercial  strawberry  industry  of  this 
state  is  based  largely  upon  a few  well-tried  varieties.  Many  new  var- 
ieties, however,  are  introduced  to  the  trade  each  year.  The  amateur  grow- 
er is  often  unacquainted  with  those  that  have  proved  desirable,  and  is  at  a 
loss  to  know  which  among  old  and  new  to  select  for  planting.  The  com- 
mercial grower  also  is  eager  to  obtain  stock  of  any  newly  developed  sort 
that  may  be  really  meritorious  with  promise  of  netting  greater  profits. 
The  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  had  some  of  these  var- 
ieties under  trial  on  its  grounds,  and  the  records  as  to  what  they  have  done 
are  sufficient  to  justify  an  opinion  as  to  their  probable  performance  under 
average  Missouri  conditions.  It  is  not  considered  either  necessary,  or  de- 
sirable, at  this  time  to  present  detailed  descriptions  and  detailed  perform- 
ance records  of  each  of  these  varieties.  The  following  account  of  our 
strawberry  variety  trials,  therefore,  is  limited  to  a brief  statement  sum- 
marizing our  observations  with  the  standard  or  spring  maturing  varieties 
and  to  a somewhat  more  detailed  statement  of  results  and  observations 
upon  the  varieties  of  the  everbearing  type. 

The  Spring  Bearing  Varieties — The  very  early  varieties  are  not  ex- 
tensively grown  in  Missouri,  and  probably  none  of  them  yields  heavily 
enough  or  is  the  type  of  berry  that  should  be  extensively  planted  except 
in  those  districts  where  an  early  berry  will  command  an  exceptionally  high 
price.  Two  of  the  more  promising  early  varieties  for  this  section  are  the 
Early  Ozark  and  Michel.  The  Early  Ozark  is  a low  growing  plant,  but  is 
vigorous,  reasonably  resistant  to  fungous  diseases,  makes  a fairly  good 
plant  growth  and,  for  an -early  berry,  is  productive.  The  berries  are  large 
for  their  season  and  are  of  very  good  quality.  Michel  (Michel’s  Early) 
is  moderately  vigorous  and  moderately  disease-resistant,  but  is  of  only 
medium  quality.  It  is  firm,  however,  and  will  probably  ship  well.  As  a 
second  early  the  Klondike  is  a very  good  commercial  variety  for  south 
Missouri,  but  it  cannot  be  recommended  for  north  Missouri.  The  plants 
of  this  variety  are  vigorous  and  the  leaves  are  very  resistant  to  leaf  spot. 
It  bears  a moderately  heavy  crop  of  large,  regular  berries  that  are  firm 
and  excellent  for  shipping  but  are  rather  poor  in  flavor.  Where  it  does 
well  it  is  a very  good  commercial  berry,  but  for  the  home  garden  there 
are  other  early  varieties  of  much  better  flavor. 

For  a midseason  berry  the  Dunlap  (Senator  Dunlap)  is  the  standard 
variety  for  north  Missouri.  It  is  an  excellent  plant  maker,  vigorous  and 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


23 


'very  productive.  The  berries  are  medium  in  size,  conical  and  often  slight- 
ly necked.  It  is  of  very  good  flavor  and  will  ship  reasonably  well  for 
short  distances,  but  is  too  soft  for  long  shipments.  It  is  also  an  excellent 
pollenizer  and  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  to  grow  with  pistillate  varieties. 

The  Dunlap  does  not  do  so  well  in  south  Missouri  and  has  given  way 
almost  entirely  to  the  Aroma  which  is  the  leading  commercial  variety  of 
the  Ozarks.  The  Aroma  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  heavy  silty  loam  to 
•clay  soils  found  in  the  Ozarks.  It  is  a little  later  than  the  Dunlap  and 
might  be  termed  a midseason  to  late  variety.  The  plants  are  vigorous,  of 
good  size,  moderately  good  plant  producers  and  very  productive.  The 
berries  run  uniformly  large,  are  roundly  conical  in  shape  and  very  attrac- 
tive. They  are  of  only  fair  flavor,  but  are  firm  and  excellent  for  shipping. 


Table  V. — Showing  the  Number  oe  Plants  Produced  erom  the  Mother 
Plants  After  the  First  Season's  Growth;  and  the  Average  Width 
oe  Rows  After  Two  Seasons  Continuous  Growth. 


Irrigated 

Not  Irrigated 

Variety 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Av.  width 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Av.  width 

Percent 

Percent 

original 

plants 

row  in 

original 

plants 

row  in 

increase 

increase 

plants 

fall  ’18 

in.  fall 
1920 

plants 

fall  ’18 

in.  fall 
1920. 

in  plants* 

in  width* 

Superb 

50 

241 

13 

50 

164 

9 

147 

144 

Progressive 

50 

648 

17 

50 

496 

12 

131 

142 

Peerless 
King  of  the 

50 

2221 

56 

50 

554 

30 

401 

187 

.Autumn 

50 

521 

18 

50 

260 

9 

200 

200 

Ideal 

50 

1590 

22 

50 

218 

12 

729 

183 

Francis 

50 

930 

21 

50 

237 

10 

392 

210 

Arizona 

50 

2405 

50 

50 

477 

22 

503 

227 

Americus 

50 

454 

21 

50 

129 

10 

352 

210 

^Percent  increase  produced  in  irrigated  plot  over  that  not  irrigated. 


In  some  years  the  Aroma  does  well  in  north  Missouri,  but  through  an  av- 
erage of  a number  of  years  it  has  not  proved  equal  to  the  Dunlap  as  a 
•commercial  variety  north  of  the  Missouri  river. 

For  a midseason  variety  of  high  quality  the  Warfield  is  one  of  the 
best.  It  does  equally  well  in  north  and  south  Missouri,  but  is  not  so  vig- 
orous a grower  or  so  disease-resistant  as  either  the  Dunlap  or  Aroma. 
The  berry  is  only  of  medium  size,  but  is  a dark  crimson  in  color  and  of 
excellent  dessert  quality.  It  is  to  be  highly  recommended  for  the  home 
garden.  Being  a pistillate  variety,  the  Warfield  must  be  grown  with  some 
good  pollenizing  variety. 

For  a late  variety  the  Gandy  is  probably  one  of  the  Best.  It  is  a 
heavy  producer  on  rich  soils,  but  tends  to  bear  “buttons”  on  thin  soils. 
The  berries  are  large,  regular,  round-conic  in  shape  and  firm,  making 
them  good  for  shipping.  The  flowers  are  perfect  or  semi-perfect,  but  the 


24  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


pollen  is  not  abundant,  consequently  this  variety  generally  does  its  best 
when  planted  with  some  good  pollenizer. 

The  Everbearing  Strawberry — The  everbearing  type  of  strawberry  has 
been  developed  in  this  country  within  comparatively  recent  years  and  has 
been  very  widely  advertised,  especially  for  the  home  garden  and  has  been 
quite  extensively  planted  for  home  use.  Instead  of  producing  all  its  ber- 
ries within  a period  of  two  to  four  weeks  in  late  May  and  June,  the  ever- 


Table  VI. — Everbearing  Strawberries  eor  1919. 


Varieties 

Yield  in  quarts 
from  a 100  ft.  row 

Yield  in  quarts 
per  acre 

Precent  culls 

Total  yield 
per  acre 

Spring 

5/17—10/26 

Fall 

10/26 

Spring 

Fall 

Spring 

Fall 

Irr'gated 

Superb 

18.66 

.36 

2351 

46 

.(*) 

• (t) 

2397 

Progressive 

25.91 

.83 

3271 

105 

3376 

Peerless 

48.33 

... 

6090 

6090 

King  of  the 
Autumn 

21.84 

.42 

2752 

53 

2805 

Ideal 

45.03 

1.0 

6049 

126 

6175 

Francis 

5.72 

.08 

722 

10 

732 

Arizona 

19.43 

2828 

2828 

Americus 

7.81 

.43 

981 

55 

1036 

Non-Irrigated 

Superb 

18.12 

.14 

2283 

18 

2301 

Progressive 

20.77 

.28 

2747 

35 

2782 

Peerless 

24.97 

.06 

3145 

8 

.... 

3153 

King  of  the 
Autumn 

25.87 

.03 

3260 

4 

.... 

3264 

Ideal 

17.25 

2188 

2188 

Francis 

1.89 

251 

251 

Arizona  1 

22.12 

2787 

2787 

Americus 

11.32 

.08 

299 

10 

309 

* Actual  amount  of  culls  was  not  kept  throughout  the  season  but  observation  showed 
it  to  run  well  over  50%  on  the  average. 
fNot  enough  berries  from  which  to  calculate  percentage  of  culls. 


bearing  strawberry  matures  its  crop  at  intervals,  more  or  less  continuously 
throughout  the  summer  and  fall.  Very  often  blossoms,  green  berries  and 
ripe  fruit  may  be  found  on  a single  plant  at  one  time. 

As  a commercial  proposition,  however,  the  everbearing  strawberry  has 
proved  to  be  somewhat  of  a disappointment  under  Missouri  conditions,  be- 
cause of  the  light  and  scattered  crop  produced  after  the  main  crop  in  the 
spring.  This  light  production  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  small  num- 
ber of  runners  formed  the  year  before.  This  lack  of  plant  growth  may  be 
due  to  two  causes:  First,  strawberries  do  not  produce  runners  while  they 

are  fruiting,  the  heavy  runner  growth  on  ordinary  sorts  always  coming  af- 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


25 


ter  the  crop  has  been  removed;  second,  the  dry  weather  here  during  July 
and  August  is  also  a limiting  factor  in  plant  growth,  because  the  run- 
ners cannot  be  produced  without  a plentiful  moisture  supply. 

In  view  of  the  above  facts  it  was  thought  advisable  to  investigate  the 
possibilities  of  irrigation  with  everbearing  strawberries,  as  fruit  borne  at 
other  times  than  the  usual  strawberry  season,  commands  good  prices  and, 
if  the  yield  could  be  raised  to  a satisfactory  point,  the  everbearing  type 
would  become  very  profitable. 

For  this  work  two  different  blocks  were  planted  with  50  plants  each 
of  Superb,  Progressive,  Peerless,  King  of  the  Autumn,  Ideal,  Francis, 


Table  VII. — Everbearing  Strawberries  for  1920. 


Yield  in 

| 

quarts  from 

Yield  in  quarts 

Percent  culls 

Total 

Varieties 

a 100  ft.  row 

per  acre 

yield 

Spring 

Summer 

Fall 

Spring 

Summer 

Fall 

Spring 

Summer 

per 

6/7- 

7/21- 

10/8- 

& fall 

acre 

6/21 

8/14 

11/1 

Irrigated 

Superb 

15.48 

3.98 

.3 

1697 

563 

38 

64 

50 

2568 

Progressive 

16.6 

18.71 

1.67 

2094 

2739 

212 

77 

53 

5045 

Peerless 

37.66 

1.64 

.05 

4756 

176 

6 

80 

61 

4938 

King  of  the 

Autumn 

31.0 

6.66 

.13 

3912 

741 

16 

72 

53 

4669 

Ideal 

56.2 

9.43 

.15 

7075 

1189 

19 

52 

56 

8283 

Francis 

11.45 

3.94 

1446 

497 

70 

73 

1943 

Arizona 

12.63 

1597 

79 

1597 

Americus 

8.45 

4.97 

.03 

1071 

632 

3 

86 

69 

1706 

Non-Irrigated 

Superb 

10.61 

1.87 

.11 

1341 

263 

13 

67 

66 

1617 

Progressive 

5.58 

1.33 

.88 

704 

169 

109 

86 

88 

982 

Peerless 

16.99 

.22 

.05 

! 2146 

28 

6 

77 

. 100 

2180 

King  of  the 

Autumn 

7.6 

1.49 

.07 

963 

79 

9 

70 

72 

1051 

Ideal 

6.16 

.8 

777 

100 

74 

72 

877 

Francis 

2.13 

.65 

278 

81 

70 

92 

359 

Arizona 

1.41 

.8 

178 

41 

77 

24 

219 

Americus 

.6 

.28 

i 

75 

35 

88 

55 

110 

Arizona  and  Americus.  They  were  set  in  rows  feet  apart  with  the 
plants  2 feet  apart  in  the  rows.  One  block  was  supplied  with  moisture 
as  needed  by  means  of  an  overhead  irrigation  system  while  the  other  re- 
ceived only  the  natural  rainfall. 

After  the  first  season’s  growth  counts  were  made  for  each  variety  in 
each  block  to  determine  how  many  plants  had  been  produced  from  the 
mother  plants.  During  the  second  and  succeeding  seasons  the  time  of 


26  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  184 


harvest  and  the  quantity  of  fruit  produced  upon  the  irrigated  and  non- 
irrigated  rows  of  each  variety  were  recorded. 

Table  V shows  that  there  were  appreciably  more  plants  produced  from 
the  mother  plants  on  the  irrigated  plot  than  on  that  which  was  not  irri- 
gated. With  some  varieties,  notably  the  Ideal  and  Arizona,  the  additional 
plant  growth  secured  the  first  year  from  irrigation  was  very  great. 

The  average  width  of  rows  as  given  in  Table  V represents  the  total 
growth  in  width  of  the  different  varieties  after  two  growing  seasons,  since 
the  rows  were  not  molested  in  the  spring  of  1920  as  they  were  in  1919 
when  the  rows  were  cut  down  to  8 inches  in  width  after  the  main  crop 
had  been  removed. 

Although  the  increase  in  width  of  rows  in  the  irrigated  plot  over  that 
not  irrigated  was  not  so  great  with  all  the  varieties,  as  the  increase  in 
number  of  plants,  the  irrigated  rows  averaged  from  one  and  one-half  to 
twice  the  width  of  the  corresponding  rows  in  the  plots  which  received 
only  the  natural  rainfall. 

Although  the  yield  in  general  was  greater  on  the  irrigated  plot  than 
on  that  not  irrigated,  the  increase  was  not  due  altogether  to  the  increased 
number  of  plants  produced,  but  to  the  better  growing  conditions  under 
irrigation.  In  fact  the  varieties  under  irrigation  had  a tendency  to  pro- 
duce too  many  new  plants  that  were  small  and  weak,  rather  than  a few 
strong  healthy  daughter  plants  which  were  capable  of  yielding  a large 
crop  of  high-quality  fruit. 

The  increased  yields  secured  from  irrigation  on  the  trial  grounds  at 
Columbia,  however,  were  not  sufficient  to  make  the  everbearing  straw- 
berry of  commercial  value  from  the  standpoint  of  the  fall  crops.  Not 
only  was  the  total  fall  yield  low,  but  the  individual  pickings  were  so  small 
that  few,  if  any,  would  pay  for  the  cost  of  picking  and  handling.  Fur- 
thermore about  50  percent  of  the  berries  harvested  graded  out  as  culls. 

At  first  glance,  it  would  seem  that  the  spring  yield  was  high  enough, 
when  compared  to  the  yield  of  the  spring  bearing  varieties,  to  make  some 
of  the  everbearers  more  profitable  to  grow,  but  if  the  light  pickings  which 
would  pay  little,  if  anything,  above  the  cost  of  handling  are  discarded,  the 
yield  would  be  cut  down  from  one-fifth  to  one-fourth.  Also  upon  exam- 
ining Tables  VI  and  VII,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  percentage  of  culls  runs 
well  over  50  percent  and  in  some  cases  over  80  percent.  This  is  far  more 
than  the  percentage  of  culls  from  the  spring  bearing  varieties  grown  under 
similar  conditions.  In  fact  the  high  percentage  of  culls  (with  some  of 
the  varieties  small  berries)  produced  by  the  everbearers,  as  grown  under 
conditions  existing  here,  is  one  of  the  serious  drawbacks  to  their  culture. 
Irrigation  decreased  the  percentage  of  culls  a little,  but  so  very  little  that 
it  is  within  the  probable  experimental  error.  Also,  the  everbearing  varie- 
ties do  not,  as  a general  thing,  have  the  flavor  and  quality  of  the  spring 
sorts. 

In  view  of  the  results  secured  by  this  .Station,  the  everbearing  straw- 
berry cannot  be  recommended  for  general  commercial  planting,  in  this 
section  of  the  country.  There  may  be,  of  course,  a few  special  localities, 
where  the  price  paid  by  the  consumer  for  strawberries  out  of  season  is 
sufficiently  high  so  that  the  everbearer  can  be  grown  with  profit. 


Small  Fruit  Growing  in  Missouri 


27 


For  the  home  garden  this  type  of  strawberry  may  be  grown  where 
the  space  required  to  grow  a reasonable  quantity,  the  care  required  and 
the  cost  are  items  of  no  consequence.  Probably  the  two  best  varieties  for 
Missouri  conditions  are  Progressive  and  Superb,  as  these  varieties  will 
meet  general  conditions  better  than  the  other  varieties  tried  here. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BULLETIN  185 


CORN  IN  MISSOURI 

II.  Field  Methods  That  Increase  the  Corn 

Crop 


COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI 
JUNE,  1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL, 

THE  CURATORS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 

EXECUTIVE  BOARD  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
H.  J.  BLANTON,  JOHN  H.  BRADLEY,  JAS.  E.  GOODRICH, 

Paris  Kennett  Kansas  City 


ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

THE  MISSOURI  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION 

A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D„  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
F.  B.  MUMFORD,  M.  S.,  DIRECTOR 

STATION  STAFF 

June,  1921 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 
C.  R.  Moulton,  Ph.  D. 

L.  D.  Haigh,  Ph.  D. 

VV.  S.  Ritchie,  A.  M. 

E.  E.  Vanatta,  M.  S.2 
R.  M.  Smith,  A.  M. 

A.  R.  Hall,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  G.  Sieveking,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

C.  F.  An  mann,  A.  B. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

J.  C.  Wooley,  B.  S. 

Mack  M.  Jones,  B.  S. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

E.  A.  Trowbridge,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

L-  A.  Weaver,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  G.  Hogan,  Ph.  D. 

F.  B.  Mumford,  M.  S. 

D.  W.  Chittenden,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Paul  B.  Bernard.  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

A.  T.  Edinger,  B.  S.  in  Agr 

H.  D.  Fox,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

BOTANY 

W.  J.  Robbins,  Ph.  D. 

E.  F.  Hopkins,  Ph.  D. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 

A.  C.  Ragsdale,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

W.  W.  Swett,  A.  M. 

Wm.  H.  E.  Reid,  A.  M. 

Samuel  Brody,  M.  A. 

C.  W.  Turner,  B^  S.  in  Agr. 

D.  H.  Nelson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

ENTOMOLOGY 
Leonard  Haseman,  Ph.  D. 

K.  C.  Sullivan,  A.  M. 

O.  R.  McBride,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FIELD  CROPS 
VV.  C.  Etheridge,  Ph.  D. 

C.  A.  Helm.  A.  M. 

L.  J.  Stadler,  A.  M. 

O.  W.  Letson,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

E.  O.  Pollock,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  B.  Branstetter.  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

B.  M.  King,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 


RURAL  LIFE 
O.  R.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  D.  Gromer,  A.  M. 

R.  C.  Hall,  A.  M. 

B.  H.  Frame,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

FORESTRY 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E. 

HORTICULTURE 

V.  R.  Gardner,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  F.  Major,  B.  S. 

H.  D.  Hooker,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

J.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  M.  S- 
F.  C..  Bradford,  M.  S. 

H.  G.  Swartwout,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
H.  L . Kempster,  B.  S. 

SOILS 

M.  F.  Miller,  M.  S.  A. 

H.  H.  Krusekopf,  A.  M. 

W.  A.  Albrecht,  Ph.  D. 

F.  L.  Duley,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Hudelson,  A.  M. 

Wm.  DeYoung,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

H.  V.  Jordan,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

Richard  Bradfield,  A.  B. 

O.  B.  Price,  B.  S.  in  Agr. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE 
J.  W.  Connaway,  D.  V.  S.,  M.  D. 

L.  S.  Backus,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  S.  Crisler.  D.  V.  M. 

A.  J.  Durant,  A.  M. 

H.  G.  Newman,  A.  M. 

ZOOLOGY 

George  Lefevre,  Ph.  D. 

OTHER  OFFICERS 
R.  B.  Price,  M.  S.,  Treasurer 
Leslie  Cowan,  B.  S.,  Secretary 
Sam  B.  Sitirkey,  Asst,  to  Dean 
A.  A.  Jeffrey,  A.  B.,  Agricultural  Editor 
J.  F.  Barham,  Photographer 
Miss  Bertha  Hite,  A.  B.1  Seed  Analyst 


'In  service  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
2On  leave  of  absence. 


CORN  IN  MISSOURI 

II.  Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn  Crop 

C.  A.  Helm* 


Corn  is  Missouri’s  greatest  crop.  Its  value  usually  exceeds  that  of  the 
combined  yields  of  both  wheat  and  oats.  On  Missouri  farms  in  1919,  for 
example,  the  acreage  of  corn  was  equal  to  all  the  fields  of  wheat  and  oats, 
while  the  value  of  the  corn  produced  was  one-and-a-half  times  the  com- 
bined value  of  these  leading  small  grain  crops. 

Yet  the  average  yield  of  corn  in  all  sections  of  the  State  is  so  low 
that  in  many  cases  the  crop  must  have  been  produced  at  a loss.  No  other 
conclusion  is  possible  from  the  reports  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Crop  Es- 
timates whose  figures  are  shown  in  Table  1. 

Table  1. — Average  Yields  and  Farm  Values  oe  Corn,  Oats,  and  Wheat  by 
Sections,  eor  the  Seasons  1908  to  1919. 


Acre  yields  and  farm  market  values  by  sections 


Crops 

Northwest 

Northeast 

Central 

Southwest 

Southeast 

Yield 

Bu. 

Value 

$ 

Yield 

Bu. 

Value 

$ 

Yield 

Bu. 

Value 

$ 

Yield 

Bu. 

Value 

$ 

Yield 

Bu. 

Value 

$ 

Corn 

27.8 

23.00 

27.8 

21.85 

24.6 

20.85 

20.2 

15.70 

25.7 

21.45 

Oats 

28.1 

13.80 

27.5 

12.90 

25.6 

12.85 

24.9 

12.25 

23.5 

13.30 

Wheat 

16.9 

21.70 

15.2 

19.85 

13.4 

17.30 

12.8 

16.95 

12.55 

16.40 

To  discover  and  adapt  to  general  application,  therefore,  principles 
that  will  increase  the  average  yield  of  corn  throughout  the  state  is  the 
greatest  opportunity  of  the  worker  in  field  crops  to  add  materially  to  the 
wealth  of  Missouri.  To  report  the  work  already  done  toward  this  pur- 
pose by  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  two  bulletins  have 
been  prepared  for  publication  as  Parts  I and  II  under  the  common  title 
of  Corn  in  Missouri.  In  Part  I,  issued  as  Missouri  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  181,  are  considered  corn  varieties,  their  regional  adaptability  and 
their  improvement  by  breeding,  selection  and  care. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  bulletin  to  discuss  the  remaining  fac- 
tors by  which  the  grower  may  increase  the  yields  of  corn,  and  to  tell 
the  results  of  experiments  in  these  processes  and  conditions. 

The  possibilities  of  increasing  Missouri’s  yield  of  corn,  oats  and  wheat 
are  indicated  by  the  tabulated  results  of  this  work.  The  average  yields 
of  these  crops  on  Experiment  Station  fields  at  Columbia  and  in  different 
parts  of  the  state  are  shown  in  Table  2. 


*Many  of  the  experiments  reported  in  this  bulletin  were  planned  by  M.  F.  Miller  in 
1906  and  have  been  at  various  times  under  the  direct  charge  of  Professor  Miller,  H.  U. 
Hughes,  C.  B.  Hutchison,  T.  R.  Douglass  and  J.  B.  Smith.  Since  1916  the  work  has 
been  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  W.  C.  Etheridge,  chairman  of  the  Department  of 
Field  Crops. 


4 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 


This  bulletin,  therefore,  considers  the  following  conditions  and  pro- 
cesses : 

Page 


(1)  Fertility  of  the  Soil  5 

(2)  Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed  7 

(3)  Method  of  Planting  8 

(4)  Time  and  Rate  of  Planting  11 

(5)  Cultivation  During  the  Growing  Season  13 

(6)  Corn  versus  Grain  Sorghums  for  Thin  Uplands  15 

(7)  Mixture  of  Corn  and  Other  Crops  18 


CORN  IN  A CROPPING  SYSTEM 

Crop  rotation  is  the  basis  of  continuous  profitable  farming  on  the 
same  land.  The  practice  of  continuous  cropping  or  planting  the  same 
field  year  after  year  to  the  same  or  similar  crops,  has  probably  done  more 
than  any  other  one  thing  in  reducing  the  margin  of  profit  secured  from 
the  corn  crop. 

The  first  principle  of  maintaining  soil  fertility  is  in  seeding  cultivated 
land  to  grass  or  clover,  at  frequent  intervals,  for  meadow  or  pasture. 


Table  2. — Average  Acre  Yields  oe  Corn,  Oats  and  Wheat. 
(On  Experiment  Fields  at  Columbia,  Maryville  and  Warrensburg) 


Columbia, 
Boone  County 

Maryville, 
Nodaway  County 

Warrensburg-, 
Johnson  County 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

12 

10 

12 

6 

6 

5 

4 

4 

4 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

45.5 

30.4 

23.2 

61.2 

48.5 

29.8 

28.3 

30.6 

14.6 

Corn,  wheat,  oats  and  soybeans  are  the  most  important  crops  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  State.  Where  any  or  all  of  these  crops  are  grown, 
grass  or  clover  should  be  sown  at  intervals  of  three  to  six  years,  depend- 
ing upon  the  conditions  involved  in  each  particular  case. 

The  yield  of  corn  more  than  the  yield  of  any  other  crop  is  lowered  by 
continuous  cropping.  In  addition  to  the  rapid  depletion  of  soil  fertility 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  becomes  poor.  Corn  smut,  root  diseases 
and  the  attack  of  insects  often  develop  from  continuous  cropping. 

Corn  naturally  fits  into  a cropping  system  following  sod  and  preceding 
oats  or  soybeans.  While  there  are  practical  objections  to  the  planting  of 
sod  land  to  corn,  no  other  crop,  with  the  exception  of  sorghum,  is  better 
adapted.  Sod  land  being  naturally  dry,  the  crop  is  more  subject  to  dam- 
age from  drought  than  when  planted  on  land  that  has  been  under  culti- 
vation for  one  or  more  years.  In  addition  to  the  natural  dryness  of  sod 
land,  corn  also  suffers  during  a drought  because  of  the  relative  rank 
growth  which  makes  a greater  demand  for  soil  moisture.  Experimental 
evidence  indicates,  however,  that  soil  moisture  is  more  efficient  on  fertile 


Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn  Crop 


5 


soils  than  on  poor  soils.  In  other  words,  a pound  of  soil  water  will  pro- 
duce more  dry  matter  in  plant  substance  on  fertile  land  than  it  will  pro- 
duce on  soil  relatively  poor. 

All  arguments  against  a rotation  following  sod  with  corn  cannot  eft- 
set  the  advantages  gained  by  establishing  a system  providing  sod  in  the 
cropping  system. 


VARIETIES 

For  the  upland  soils  of  North  Missouri  medium  early  maturing  var- 
ieties are  preferable.  Reid’s  Yellow  Dent  is  one  of  the  best  of  these  var- 
ieties. Boone  County  White  and  St.  Charles  White  are  varieties  recom- 
mended for  the  uplands  of  Central  Missouri. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  state  Commercial  White  is  adapted  to  the 
upland  soils.  For  the  lowlands  of  Southeast  Missouri,  St.  Charles  White 
has  proved  best.  For  all  bottom  lands  of  the  State,  excepting  the  lowlands 
of  the  southeastern  portion,  Boone  County  White  is  generally  recom- 
mended. 

When  early  varieties,  those  maturing  in  from  100  to  115  days,  are 
wanted,  use  Iowa  S lvermine.  Diamond  Joe,  or  early  maturing  types  of 
Calico  or  Bloody  Butcher. 

For  silage  purposes  St.  Charles  White  and  Commercial  White  have 
proved  superior  to  other  varieties  tested. 

A thorough  discussion  of  varieties  is  included  in  Missouri  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  181. 

THE  USE  OF  MANURE  ON  CORN 

The  results  of  fifteen  years  experiments  by  the  Department  of  Soils  of 
this  station  on  a large  number  of  soil  types  in  various  sections  of  Mis- 
souri show  an  average  yearly  increase  in  yield  of  10.34  bushels  an  acre, 
when  8 tons  of  manure  were  applied  in  a four-year  rotation  and  plowed 
under  before  planting  corn.  No  more  manure  was  applied  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  next  rotation. 

The  average  annual  increase  of  crops  following  corn  in  the  rotation 
have  been,  oats  4.59  bushels,  wheat  4.73  bushels,  and  clover  hay  808 
pounds.  It  will  be  seen  from  these  figures  that  the  effect  of  the  manure 
was  by  no  means  confined  to  the  corn  crop.  It  is  usually  most  convenient, 
however,  to  apply  manure  before  corn  so  that  it  can  be  plowed  under.  Less 
of  the  fertility  supplied  by  the  manure  is  lost  if  this  is  done  than  if  the 
manure  is  applied  as  a top  dressing.  However,  it  is  often  good  practice 
to  top-dress  wheat  with  manure  where  clover  or  grass  is  to  follow.  It 
is  better  to  plow  under  coarse,  fresh  manure  several  weeks  before  the 
corn  is  planted,  as  this  gives  time  for  decay  to  begin  and  there  will  be 
more  plant  food  available  when  the  young  corn  needs  it. 

Manure  may  be  applied  to  corn  at  almost  any  rate  up  to  16  tons  an 
acre  with  profitable  results.  An  application  of  this  sort,  however,  is  pos- 
sible only  if  a large  amount  of  feed  is  purchased.  The  average  farm  can 
not  produce  more  than  enough  manure  to  apply  eight  tons  an  acre  once 


6 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 

in  a four  year  rotation,  or  an  average  of  two  tons  an  acre  a year  to  the 
cultivated  land.  This  amount  can  be  applied  only  if  the  most  carefm 
methods  of  handling  manure  are  used. 

Manure  in  itself  is  not  a complete  fertilizer  as  compared  with  the 
needs  of  the  crops  and  the  soil,  for  the  percentage  of  phosphorus  is  low. 
This  may  be  corrected  by  adding  25  to  40  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  to 
each  load  of  manure  before  applying. 


FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN 

When  the  supply  of  barnyard  manure  is  limited  it  is  often  profitable 
to  apply  commerc'al  fertilizer  to  corn.  In  the  experiments  conducted  on 
the  soil  experiment  fields  an  application  of  steamed  bonemeal  at  the  rate 
of  150  pounds  an  acre,  applied  with  a fertilizer  drill  ahead  of  the  corn 
planter,  has  given  an  average  increase  in  yield  of  3.59  bushels  of  corn  and 
5.45  bushels  of  oats  following  the  corn  the  next  year.  Ac‘d  phosphate 
has  given  results  similar  to  steamed  bonemeal  when  tested  on  the  same 
fields. 

On  medium  to  thin  lands  where  some  manure  is  used  it  is  usually 
good  practice  to  apply  about  150  to  250  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  or 
bonemeal  with  a fertilizer  drill  ahead  of  the  corn  planter.  On  very  thin 
lands  and  especially  where  little  manure  is  returned  and  few  legume  crops 
grown  a mixed  fertilizer  containing  2 or  3 percent  nitrogen,  10  to  12  percent 
available  phosphoric  acid  and  2 or  3 percent  potash  may  be  used  instead 
of  the  acid  phosphate  or  bonemeal.  Fertilizers  give  their  best  results  on 
corn  in  seasons  of  normal  rainfall.  During  dry  years  they  may  cause  the 
corn  to  fire  and  produce  little  or  no  increase  in  the  yield  of  grain. 

In  some  parts  of  Missouri  it  is  common  practice  to  apply  fertilizer 
in  the  hill  or  row  with  an  attachment  to  the  corn  planter.  When  used 
in  this  way  the  fertilizer  should  be  applied  at  only  75  to  100  pounds  to  the 
acre.  During  seasons  of  abundant  rainfall  this  method  will  yield  good  re- 
turns, but  in  dry  . years  there  is  more  danger  that  the  fertilizer  may  cause 
the  corn  to  fire  than  when  it  is  applied  ahead  of  the  planter  with  a fer- 
tilizer drill.  The  effect  on  the  following  crop  will  also  be  less  than  if  the 
fertilizer  is  applied  with  a fertilizer  drill. 

In  general  the  fertilizing  of  corn  may  be  considered  a temporary 
means  of  increasing  the  immediate  crops.  It  has  little  effect  in  building 
up  the  soil  except  that  the  phosphorous  content  may  be  slightly  increased 
if  large  quantities  of  high  phosphatic  fertilizers  are  added.  In  any  sys- 
tem of  fertilizing  corn  the  other  crops  in  the  rotation  should  always  be 
considered,  for  the  increased  yields  of  these  may  greatly  increase  the  pro- 
fit from  the  fertilizer.  Fertilizer  should  be  used  with  a good  system  of 
crop  rotation  which  returns  an  abundance  of  organic  matter  and  manure 
to  the  land  and  which  utilizes  the  best  methods  of  cultivation  and  soil 
management.  That  is,  fertilizers  should  be  used  to  help  raise  the  general 
level  of  crop  yields;  but  they  should  not  be  depended  upon  to  increase 
or  even  to  maintain  yields,  unless  other  provisions  are  made  for  maintain- 
ing the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  of  the  soil. 


Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn  Crop 


7 


PLOWING  FOR  CORN 

Fall  plowing  usually  is  advisable  when  the  land  is  not  inclined  to 
wash  badly.  Spring  plowing  should  be  practiced  exclusively  where  land 
washes  during  the  winter  months.  Land  deeply  fall  plowed  is  less  sub- 
ject to  erosion  than  when  plowed  very  shallow. 

Fall  plowing  has  many  advantages  other  than  reducing  the  amount 
of  spring  labor.  Whenever  practicable,  sod  land  should  be  broken  in  the 
fall.  It  causes  a more  complete  decay  of  all  plant  growth  turned  under, 
together  with  the  decay  of  grass  roots.  Disking  before  plowing  is  recom- 
mended. Fall  disking  and  plowing  of  sod  land  reduce  the  danger  that 
corn  yields  will  be  cut  by  drought  in  the  following  season.  Another  fac- 
tor favoring  fall  plowed  sod  land  is  the  control  of  wireworms  and  cut 
worms.  Their  attack  is  always  more  noticeable  following  sod,  especially 
in  seasons  when  the  weather  is  continually  cool  and  moist  the  first  two 
weeks  after  the  corn  is  up.  Fall  plowing  followed  by  freezing  weather 
helps  materially  in  the  control  of  these  pests. 

Fall  plowing  not  only  provides  more  time  for  thorough  seed  bed 
preparation  in  the  spring,  but  makes  possible  the  preparation  of  a good 
seed  bed  with  less  labor,  because  of  the  effects  of  freezing  and  'thawing. 
Fall  plowing  in  the  place  of  spring  plowing  usually  will  reduce  the  labor  of 
preparing  the  seed  bed  by  at  least  one  double  disking. 

Depth  of  Plowing. — 'The  proper  depth  of  plowing  land  for  corn  de- 
pends largely  . upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  and  the  depth  of 
former  plowing.  Plowing  6 to  8 inches  deep  is  recommended  as  a gen- 
eral practice.  Plowing  always  at  one  depth  tends  to  pack  the  soil  be- 
low the  furrow  depth.  When  it  is  desired  to  deepen  a shallow  soil  by 
plowing,  the  depth  of  plowing  should  be  increased  very  slightly  each  year. 
Do  not  throw  out  several  inches  of  new  soil  at  one  time  for  this  may  re- 
sult in  decreased  yield  of  the  crop.  This  decrease  will  be  more  notice- 
able when  the  ground  is  plowed  in  the  spring.  The  effect  will  also  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  subsoil. 

SEED  BED  PREPARATION 

In  preparing  the  land  for  planting  the  ultimate  object  is  weed  con- 
trol. After  fall  plowing  it  is  well  to  let  the  land  lie  in  its  rough  condi- 
tion as  long  as  possible  up  to  the  final  preparation  for  planting.  But  when 
land  is  plowed  in  the  spring  it  should  be  harrowed  soon  afterward.  There 
are  two  distinct  advantages  of  this  practice  (1)  the  harrowing  fills  in  the 
spaces  between  the  furrow  slices  and  thus  checks  the  evaporation  of 
moisture  and  (2)  it  levels  the  surface  and  makes  disking  much  easier  and 
more  effective.  However,  final  preparation  of  spring-plowed  land  should 
also  wait  until  just  before  planting.  The  great  benefit  in  this  practice  is 
the  destruction  of  early  grass  and  weeds  which  are  so  difficult  to  clean 
out  at  the  early  cultivation  of  the  crop.  Planting  on  thoroughly  clean 
land  is  an  important  step  toward  a successful  crop. 

When  the  land  is  disked  but  once,  disking  should  cross  the  direction 
of  plowing.  In  harrowing  go  across  the  disking  or  at  an  angle  to  the  di- 
rection of  disking.  This  method  provides  a more  uniform  seed  bed.  A 


8 Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 


level  seed  bed  is  essential,  especially  if  the  ground  is  only  moderately 
loose,  as  it  results  in  a more  uniform  depth  of  planting. 

In  the  case  of  sod  land  double  disking  with  cross  disking  is  usually 
necessary  to  put  the  ground  in  good  shape  for  corn.  The  amount  of  work 
will  always  depend  upon  the  time  of  breaking  and  the  sodded  condition 
of  the  soil.  Thorough  working  of  the  surface  before  planting,  thus  enab- 
ling better  covering  of  the  seed,  will  always  reduce  the  damage  done  by 
field  mice,  crows  and  other  birds.  Following  the  planter  with  a harrow 
will  also  help  materially. 

METHODS  OF  PLANTING 

Through  the  greater  part  of  the  corn  belt  corn  is  surface  planted  on 
ground  prepared  by  fall  or  spring  plowing.  The  listing  of  corn  is  a prac- 
tice confined  largely  to  the  western  section  of  the  corn  belt  in  regions 
where  moisture  is  the  limiting  factor  in  crop  production. 

Listing  is  not  recommended  as  a general  practice  for  Missouri.  It 
is,  especially,  not  advisable  through  the  greater  part  of  Northeast  Mis- 
souri and  in  other  sections  where  the  land  is  flat  and  none  too  well  drain- 
ed. On  such  land  listing  increases  the  danger  that  the  seed  will  rot  in 
the  ground  or  that  the  young  crop  will  be  drowned  out  after  it  comes  up. 

In  sections  where  the  soil  is  relatively  shallow,  listing  is  not  ad- 
visable, for  it  would  result  in  planting  the  corn  in  or  near  the  subsoil. 
But  in  the  extreme  Northwestern  part  of  the  State,  designated  in  general 
by  Atchison,  Nodaway,  Holt,  Andrew,  DeKalb,  Gentry,  Harrison  and 
Worth  counties,  there  is  reason  for  believing  that  where  land  is  well 
drained,  listing  is  better  than  surface  planting.  At  Maryville,  in  Noda- 
way county,  tests  of  listing  covering  a nine-year  period  have  been  con- 
ducted by  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  in  co-operation  with  the  North- 
west Missouri  State  Teachers  College,  with  excellent  results.  These  re- 
sults are  reported  in  Table  3. 

As  an  average  for  the  nine  years  single  listing  has  increased  the  yield 
12.6  bushels  per  acre  over  plowing  and  surface  planting.  The  use  of  fur- 
row openers  in  surface  planting,  by  which  means-  the  seed  is  planted  in 
shallow  furrows,  increased  the  yield  7.4  bushels  per  acre  over  ordinary 
surface  planting.  Double  disking  ahead  of  the  lister  has  not  paid  for  the 
labor  involved.  Double  disking  has  been  inferior  to  single  listing  to  the 
extent  of  6.6  bushels  decrease  per  acre. 

During  each  of  the  nine  years  single  listing  has  given  a better  yield 
than  the  average  of  the  other  four  methods.  Except  for  the  seasons  of 
1911,  1915,  and  1916  single  listing  has  given  larger  yields  than  any  other 
methods,  being  for  two  of  these  years  slightly  lower  in  yield  than  where 
furrow  openers  were  used  on  plowed  land.  A study  of  the  rainfall  table 
(see  Table  4)  shows  that  during  the  years  of  1915  and  1916  more  rain 
fell  during  the  months  of  June  to  August  inclusive  than  for  this  period  in 
any  of  the  remaining  seven  years.  Moisture  was  especially  plentiful  in 
1915  during  the  period  June  to  August. 

The  relatively  low  yields  from  double  listing  can  be  explained,  in  part 
at  least,  by  the  condition  of  the  seed  bed.  The  treatments  were  conducted 
each  year  on  land  that  had  been  in  corn,  surface  planted  the  year  before. 


Tabi,e  3. — Yield  oe  Corn  as  Determined  by  the  Method  oe  Preparing  the  Seed  Bed. 

(Maryville,  Nodaway  County) 


Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn 


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10  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 


The  stalks  were  not  pastured  and  considerable  plant  residue  and  trash 
was  present  each  spring.  Through  double  listing  this  plant  residue  was 
only  partly  covered.  This  left  the  soil  extremely  loose  and  porous  and 
the  crop  was  probably  more  subject  to  damage  from  drought.  It  also  in- 
terfered materially  with  cultivation,  even  to  the  extent  of  reducing  the 
stand  by  the  occasional  loosening  or  tearing  out  of  hills  of  corn. 

This  series  of  experiments  was  partly  duplicated  during  the  years  1917 
to  1920  in  co-operation  with  the  Central  Missouri  State  Teachers’  College 
at  Warrensburg  in  Johnson  County.  While  the  results  shown  in  Table 
5-  are  not  consistent  enough  to  warrant  general  recommendations,  the 

Table  5. — Yields  oe  Corn  Surface  Planted  With  and  Without  Furrow 

Openers. 

(Warrensburg,  Johnson  County) 


Bushels  per  acre 


Method  of  planting 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Average 

Surface  planted 

without  furrow  opener 
Surface  planted 

40.1 

. 

1 4‘3 

21.9 

47.4 

28.4 

with  furrow  . opener 

52.2 

4.3 

j 

26.4 

46.3 

32.3 

use  of  furrow  openers  increased  the  yield  3.9  bushels  per  acre  over  that  of 
ordinary  surface  planting.  Moisture  is  without  -question  the  most  im- 
portant limiting  factor  in  corn  production  over  much  of  Northwest  Mis- 
souri. The  soil  is~  deep,  fertile,  and  generally  well  drained.  Under  such 
conditions  corn  grows  extremely  rank.  Dry  periods,  though  often  short 
in  duration,  seriously  effect  the  yield  of  corn. 


SHOWING  COMPARATIVE  YIELDS  OF  CORN  SURFACE:  PLANTED  AND  CORN  LISTED 

MARYVILLE  NODAWAY  COUNTY 


Y /// \ bushels  or  corn  i 1 bushels  increase 

1////I  SURE  ace:  PLEN-rro  I I FROM  LISTING 

Fig.  1. — Comparative  Yields  of  Corn  Surface  Planted  and  Listed,  at  Maryville  in  Noda- 
way County. 


Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn  Crop 


11 


Listed  corn  is  somewhat  reduced  in  stalk  development  and  leaf  area. 
For  this  reason  and  probably  for  others  which  are  not  understood,  listed 
corn  is  able  to  withstand  drought  better  than  surface  planted  corn.  In 
addition,  listed  corn  is  less  inclined  to  blow  down  or  be  broken  off  after 
earing. 

In  general,  rainfall  affects  the  relative  production  of  listed  corn  and 
surface  planted  corn.  A study  of  Tables  4 and  6 and  figure  1 will  show 
this  correlation.  It  is  best  illustrated  during  the  seasons  1913  and  1915. 
In  1913  listed  corn  gave  an  increase  of  28.6  bushels  while  in  1915  the 
increase  over  surface  planting  was  only  4.1  bushels.  The  total  rainfall 
during  the  months  of  June  to  August  was  only  8.8  inches  in  1913,  and  for 
the  same  period  in  1915,  31.0  inches.  Considering  the  rainfall  for  these 
years  from  April  to  August  in  1913,  14.9  inches  fell  while  in  1915  there  was 
a total  of  38.6  inches. 

Table;  6. — Yields  of  Corn  from  Two  Methods  oe  Planting,  Together  With 
Inches  oe  Raineaee  During  Growing  Season. 

(.Maryville,  Nodaway  County) 


Yield  in  bushels  per  acre  by  years 


Method  of  planting 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1919 

1920 

Average 

No  disking,  land 
single  listed 

60.3 

80.0 

43.1 

58.1 

45.2 

59.2 

84.2 

91.9 

55.9 

64.2 

I^and  plowed,  crop 
surface  planted 

49.9 

62.8 

14.5 

44.9 

41.1 

46.3 

75.0 

78.5 

51.7 

51.6 

Difference 

10.4 

17.2 

28.6 

13.2 

4.1 

12.9 

9.2 

13.4 

4.2 

12.6 

Total  inches  rainfall 
June  1 to  Aug.  30 

5.7 

1 

6.3 

8.8 

6.3 

31.0 

10.8 

10.7 

8.8 

5.3 

For  the  season  of  1912  listed  corn  gave  an  increase  of  17.2  bushels. 
The  total  rainfall  for  the  summer  months  was  only  6.3  inches.  In  some 
seasons,  for  example  the  season  of  1920,  the  relations  are  not  so  consistent. 
The  difference  in  yield  favoring  listed  corn  was  only  4.2  bushels  yet  the 
total  rainfall  was  comparatively  light;  especially  during  the  last  three 
weeks  in  June  and  for  the  month  of  August.  This  can  be  explained  in 
part  by  the  relatively  thin  stand  on  the  plots  for  this  season.  Under 
less  than  normal  stand,  the  effects  of  dry  weather  would  not  .be  so  notice- 
able. 


TIME,  MANNER  AND  RATE  OF  PLANTING 

Corn  in  Missouri  ordinarily  is  planted  too  early  for  best  yields.  Low- 
er yields  from  early  planting  may  result  from  (1)  poor  stands  due  to 
rotting  of  the  seed  and  attacks  from  wireworms  and  cutworms,  and  (2) 
an  early,  rank  growth  of  weeds,  which  is  seldom  completely  cleaned  out. 

There  are,  however,  two  practical  reasons  in  favor  of  early  planting. 
The  first  is  the  convenience  of  labor.  Where  large  acreages  are  to  be 
planted  it  is  necessary  to  start  early  in  time  to  finish  planting  at  a season- 
able date.  The  second  one  is  that  late  planted  corn  is  often  caught  by 


12  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 


dry  periods  at  a critical  stage  in  its  development  during  silking  and  tas- 
seling.  Corn  planted  earlier  may  escape  partly  or  entirely  such  dry  per- 
iods. At  this  stage  corn  is  affected  more  by  dry  periods  and  hot  winds 
than  at  any  other  time,  resulting  in  firing  the  tassel,  poor  pollination,  and 
a general  check  in  shooting  and  ear  development.  Many  of  the  so  called 
barren  stalks  are  caused  by  dry  weather,  thick  planting  or  a combination 
of  both. 

Late  planted  corn  is  also  affected  more  by  the  attack  of  corn  ear 
worms  than  corn  planted  earlier.  However,  all  reasons  in  favor  of  early 
planting  will  not  warrant  planting  so  early  that  stan'ds  are  reduced  or  that 
the  crop  cannot  be  kept  clean. 

Through  the  sandy  soils  of  Southeast  Missouri,  the  Ozark  sectic 
the  Ozark  border,  and  the  flat  and  rolling  prairies  of  Southwest  Missouri, 
early  planting  of  corn  is  necessary  for  the  best  success  in  average  years. 
These  soils  are  naturally  dry  and  failures  from  drought  are  not  uncom- 
mon. Planting  two  weeks  later  than  the  average  date  often  will  result  in 
practically  complete  failures.  Through  the  central  and  northern  part  of 
the  State  the  soils  do  not  dry  out  so  quickly,  especially  along  the  Mis- 
souri River  and  in  the  northwest  section.  In  these  areas  extremely  early 
planting  is  seldom  warranted. 

In  general,  corn  on  upland  should  be  check-rowed  and  on  rich,  moist 
bottom  land  drilled.  Where  land  will  stand  a heavy  rate  of  planting,  more 
corn  can  be  raised  from  drilled  corn  than  from  checked  corn.  This  is 
partly  because  (1)  more  good  ears  can  be  produced  in  drilled  corn  than 
in  corn  checked  and  (2)  under  ordinary  conditions  the  roots  are  dam- 
aged more  in  cross  cultivation.  However,  when  corn  is  drilled  one  must 
consider  the  difficulty  in  weed  control,  especially  in  backward  seasons. 

The  common  rate  of  planting  is  three  kernels  checked  every  three  and 
one-half  feet  in  rows  3 feet  5 inches  to  3 feet  8 inches  apart.  When  the 
crop  is  drilled  the  quantity  of  seed  used  is  about  the  same.  A heavier 
rate  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  most  corn  land  in  the  State  except 
where  the  crop  is  intended  for  silage.  On  rich,  moist,  bottom  soils  typifi- 
ed by  the  Missouri  river  bottoms  a heavier  rate,  an  additional  stalk  every 
3.5  feet  in  the  row,  will  usually  result  in  greater  yields,  especially  as  a 
silage  crop.  Where  corn  is  planted  very  thick,  however,  it  should  always 
be  drilled. 

On  the  thinner  uplands  of  Missouri  corn  is  easily  affected  by  drought, 
and  a standard  rate  of  two  plants  to  every  3.5  feet  in  the  row,  checked  or 
drilled,  will  yield  as  much  and  usually  more  corn  per  acre  than  a heavier 
planting.  This  applies  especially  to  the  Ozark  region,  the  Ozark  border, 
and  the  southwest  level  prairies  of  the  State. 

At  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  for  the  seasons  of  1918,  1919  and 
1920  checked  corn  2 stalks  per  hill  averaged  2.3  bushels  per  acre  more 
than  a 3-stalk  rate.  The  results  are  reported  in  Table  7. 

CORN  CULTIVATION 

Corn  is  cultivated  primarily  to  kill  weeds  and  at  the  same  time  to 
keep  the  soil  receptive  to  rainfall.  On  thin  soils  or  where  there  is  a ten- 
dency for  the  soil  to  run  together  and  become  hard  and  baked,  cultiva- 


Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn  Crop 


13 


tion  also  helps  to  hold  moisture.  In  general,  however,  where  extra  culti- 
vations are  not  necessary  for  weed  control,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  results  se- 
cured will  pay  for  the  extra  labor  involved.  This  is  true  especially  on  all 
soils  which  could  be  classed  as  above  the  average  in  fertility. 

Tate  cultivation  after  corn  is  normally  laid  by  will  rarely  pay.  Ex- 
tra cultivations  are  usually  done  with  a one-horse  cultivator  harrow,  single 
shovel,  or  mower  wheel  harrow.  If  in  these  extra  cultivations  the  ground 
is  stirred  deeply  the  actual  result  will  more  often  be  to  decrease  the  yield 
than  to  increase  it. 

Corn  develops  its  principal  feeding  roots  in  the  top  six  to  seven  inches 
of  soil.  These  roots  develop  rapidly  as  the  plants  advance  in  growth,  anu 
by  the  time  corn  is  in  full  tassel  have  extended  through  the  soil  between 
and  in  the  row.  Any  cultural  operation  which  interferes  with  this  de- 
velopment may  materially  reduce  the  yield  of  the  crop. 


Table  7. — Yields  oe  Corn  Planted  at  Different  Rates. 
(Columbia,  Boone  County) 


Rate  of  planting 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Average 

Check-rowed  2-rate 

14.4 

47.8 

69.0 

43.7 

Check-rowed  3-rate 

10.8 

47.0 

66.3 

41.4 

Deep  cultivation  should  be  avoided  late  in  the  season,  especially  when 
corn  is  being  normally  plowed  the  last  time.  The  effects  of  deep  cul- 
tivation will  more  often  be  noticeable  during  periods  of  drought.  Deep, 
late  cultivation  followed  by  extremely  dry  weather  may  often  reduce  the 
yield  of  corn  10  to  15  percent,  especially  if  the  drought  comes  at  a 
critical  time  in  corn  development — silking  and  tasseling. 

The  effect  of  deep  cultivation  on  the  yields  of  corn  is  indicated  in 
Table  8 which  shows  the  importance  of  shallow  tillage.  In  these  experi- 
ments, carried  on  at  four  outlying  fields  in  the  State,  land  previous  to  cul- 
tivation was  treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner.  Shovel  type  of  cultiva- 
tois  were  used  in  these  experiments.  All  plots  were  cultivated  four  times 
except  the  plots  receiving  late  culture,  which  were  cultivated  six  times. 
For  both  shallow  and  late  cultivations  the  soil  was  stirred  only  deep 
enough  to  keep  down  weeds.  On  the  deep  cultivated  plots  the  soil  was 
stirred  to  an  average  depth  of  five  inches.  On  the  surface  scraped  plots 
no  cultivators  were  used;  the  weeds  being  controlled  by  very  shallow 
hoeing. 

The  average  yields  for  the  ten  years  at  all  the  four  fields  brings  out 
four  practical  points  in  regard  to  corn  culture:  (1)  cultivation  is  primarily  for 
the  purpose  of  weed  control  (2)  deep  cultivation  reduces  the  yield  (3) 
late  cultivation  will  ordinarily  not  pay  for  the  labor  involved  and  (4)  av- 
erage cultivation,  even  though  shallow,  causes  considerable  injury  to  corn 
roots,  resulting  in  reduced  yields. 

Nearly  10  bushels  greater  yield  was  obtained  by  keeping  the  weeds 
down  by  hoeing,  as  compared  to  shallow  cultivation.  The  practical  ap- 


14  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 


plication  of  this  result  may  be  found  in  the  use  of  weeder  knives  in  the 
place  of  shovels  during  the  later  stages  of  corn  growth.  Six  and  one- 
half  bushels  increase  was  secured  from  shallow  culture,  over  cultivating 
deeply. 

At  the  Shelbina  field,  ridging  the  land  was  practiced  in  comparison 
with  the  shallow,  late  and  deep  cultural  operations,  reported  in  Table  8. 
An  average  acre  yield  for  three  years  of  18.6  bushels  was  secured.  This 
was  four  bushels  per  acre  less  than  on  the  shallow  cultivated  plots. 

These  results  are  consistent  with  those  from  cultural  experiments  con- 
ducted in  other  states.  For  example,  at  the  Illinois  Station  for  a period 
of  five  years,  an  increase  of  6 bushels  resulted  from  shallow  cultivation, 
as  compared  to  deep  cultivation. 


Table  8. — Eeeects  oe  DieeerEnt  Methods  oe  Tillage  on  the  Yield  oe  Corn. 
(Summary  of  Results  from  Four  Fields) 


Method  of 
cultivating 

Number 

of 

cultivations 

Yield  in  bushels  ; 

per  acre 

Shelbina 
Shelby  Co.) 
3 years 

Maryville 
(Nod’w’y  Co.) 
3 years 

Warrensburg 
(Johnson  Co.) 
3 years 

Springfield 
(Greene  Co.) 
1 year 

Total 

Average 

Shallow 

4 

22.5 

45.7 

23.8 

28.4 

30.1 

Late 

6 

21.4 

37.9 

23.2 

28.3 

27.7 

Deep 

4 

21.1 

33.7 

21.8 

18.0 

23.6 

Surface 

scraped 

none* 

58.9 

25.6 

34.9 

39.8 

Average 

21.7 

44.1 

23.6 

27.4 

*No  cultivation;  but  the  plot  was  kept  clean  by  scraping  the  surface  with  a hoe  whenever 
the  other  plots  were  cultivated. 


WEED  CONTROL 

Crop  rotation  is  the  first  step  in  weed  control.  Since  one  of  the 
most  important  items  in  the  cost  of  corn  production  is  the  cultural  opera- 
tions, any  methods  which  will  reduce  the  labor  costs  of  keeping  corn  free 
of  weeds  will  materially  increase  the  crop  profits. 

Certain  weeds,  due  to  their  habits  and  time  of  growth,  are  naturally 
associated  with  cultivated  crops.  Crab  grass,  yellow  and  green  foxtail, 
bull  nettle,  butter  print,  pigweed,  morning  glory,  and  cocklebur  are  the 
principal  bad  weeds  in  corn.  These  weeds  are  always  to  be  found  in  great- 
ter  numbers  in  land  grown  year  after  year  to  corn.  Through  a systematic 
alternation  of  corn,  small  grains  and  grass  much  progress  can  be  made  in 
the  control  of  weeds.  Sod  land  planted  to  corn  can  be  kept  clean  with 
less  labor  than  land  long  under  cultivation. 

For  the  season,  weed  control  is  best  secured  by  planting  on  a seed 
bed  freshly  prepared  ahead  of  the  planter.  This  gives  the  corn  an  oppor- 
tunity to  start  even  with  the  weeds,  if  not  ahead  of  them,  and  makes  it 
possible  to  clean  the  corn  by  the  first  cultivation.  Extremely  early  plant- 


Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn  Crop 


15 


ing  usually  results  in  difficulty  in  cleaning  corn.  Certain  weeds  germin- 
ate promptly  and  grow  more  rapidly  under  cool,  moist  conditions. 

The  harrow  is  one  of  the  best  implements  in  corn  cultivation.  Corn 
may  be  harrowed  before  it  is  large  enough  to  cultivate,  and  while  the 
weeds  are  yet  small.  Harrowing  also  breaks  any  soil  crust  that  may  have 
been  formed  and  serves  to  make  the  soil  drier  and  warmer  on  the  sur- 
face, stimulating  the  growth  of  the  corn.  Harrowing  while  corn  is  small 
reduces  the  damage  done  by  field  mice,  cutworms,  wireworms  and  birds. 
Any  reduction  in  stand  by  harrowing  is  easily  offset  by  these  advantages 
gained.  The  harrow  should  always  be  set  with  the  teeth  slanting  back 
rather  than  straight. 

When  corn  is  planted  on  first  year  sod  the  disk  type  of  cultivator  is 
more  desirable  than  the  shovel  types.  This  is  true  at  least  for  the  first 
and  second  cultivations,  especially  if  the  ground  is  well  set  with  grass 
roots. 

In  backward  seasons  or  where  weeds  have  made  a large  growth,  corn 
can  be  more  easily  cleaned  with  the  disk  cultivator.  Ground  can  be  cul- 
tivated with  this  implement  when  too  wet  for  the  shovel  cultivator.  The 
corn  should  be  “barred  off,”  getting  as  close  to  the  plants  as  is  pos- 
sible. At  this  time  corn  has  not  developed  an  extensive  root  system  and 
there  is  always  sufficient  moisture  to  prevent  the  soil  from  drying  out. 
There  is  no  danger  in  retarding  the  growth  of  the  plants. 

For  the  second  cultivation  the  disks  should  be  set  to  throw  the  soil 
back,  giving  enough  “set”  to  cover  weeds  between  the  hills.  If  the  corn 
has  been  checked,  the  second  cultivation  may  also  “bar  off,”  crossing  the 
first  and  breaking  out  the  sections  between  the  hills.  After  the  two  first 
cultivations  either  type  of  cultivator  is  equally  satisfactory. 

Due  to  the  inefficiency  in  maintaining  two  complete  sets  of  cultiva- 
tors, the  common  practice  is  to  use  either  the  disk  or  shovel  type  ex- 
clusively. Where  all  cultivations  are  made  with  the  disk  type  care  should 
be  used  to  prevent  excessive  ridging  of  land  by  the  time  the  corn  is  being 
worked  the  last  time.  The  land  should  be  left  as  near  level  as  possible. 
The  practice  of  ridging  corn  is  common,  especially  on  the  less  rolling  and 
poorly  drained  soils  of  Northeast  and  Southwest  Missouri.  The  results  ob- 
tained in  securing  better  drainage  during  early  spring  will  not  offset  the 
damage  done  the  plants  during  the  drier  periods  of  summer. 

On  stumpy  or  rocky  land,  the  four-shovel  type  of  cultivator  is  in 
more  common  use.  Whenever  practicable,  however,  the  six-shovel  im- 
plements are  to  be  preferred.  The  land  can  be  stirred  more  effectively 
without  cultivating  deeply  and  without  the  necessity  of  ridging. 

CORN  OR  SORGHUM  FOR  THIN  UPLANDS 

On  much  of  the  thin,  dry  uplands  of  the  Ozark  section  corn  is  a diffi- 
cult crop  to  grow  successfully,  except  in  especially  favorable  seasons. 
Over  this  section,  as  well  as  the  uplands  of  the  Ozark  border  and  the 
level  prairies  of  Southwest  Missouri,  there  is  reason  for  believing  that 
grain  sorghums  are  generally  better  than  corn  for  a grain  crop.  When 
cured  forage  is  desired  the  sweet  sorghum  will  produce  more  tonnage 
and  a better  quality  of  feed  than  corn  will  produce. 


16  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 


The  sorghums  are  extremely  drought  resistant.  They  will  live  through 
periods  so  dry  that  corn  would  be  ruined  for  seed  or  forage,  and  when 
the  drought  is  broken,  they  will  go  into  a vigorous  growth.  They  will 
make  fairly  good  yields  on  poor  land. 

Comparative  yields  of  corn  and  sorghums  were  secured  during  the 
seasons  1919  and  1920  at  Columbia,  Boone  County,  and  at  Cuba,  Crawford 
County.  Additional  yields  were  secured  during  the  seasons  1917,  1918 


Fig.  2. — A field  of  Grain  Sorghum  in  Crawford  County  (Photographed  at  Second  Cul- 
tivation.) 


and  1919  at  Warrensburg,  Johnson  County.  The  results  are  shown  in 
Tables  9,  10  and  11. 

The  results  secured  at  Cuba,  Crawford  County,  as  shown  in  Table  10, 
are  an  indication  of  what  may  be  expected  in  yields  of  these  crops.  The 
soil  on  which  the  experiments  were  conducted  will  not  make  a good  crop 


Table  9. — Yields  in  Seed,  Green  Forage,  and  Cured  Forage  oe  Corn,  Grain 

and  Sweet  Sorghums. 

(Columbia,  Boone  County) 


Crop 

Bushels  of  grain 
per  acre 

Tons  of  green  f 
per  acre 

orage 

Tons  of  cured 
per  acre 

forage 

1919 

1920 

Avg. 

1919 

1920 

Avg. 

1919 

1920 

Avg. 

Corn 

50.6 

62.5 

56.6 

6.5 

10.7 

8.6 

1.2 

1.9 

1.6 

Kafir 

66.8 

26.0 

46.4 

7.7 

9.8 

8.8 

1.6 

2.6 

2.1 

Milo 

65.0 

13.8 

39.4 

7.6 

6.9 

7.3 

1.1 

1.9 

1.5 

Feterita 

56.6 

15.9 

36.3 

6.1 

5.3 

5.7 

1.3 

2.0 

1.7 

Sweet  Sorghum 

50.1 

15.7 

32.9 

14.2 

19.1 

16.7 

1.6 

2.5 

2.0 

Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn  Crop 


17 


of  corn  in  the  average  season.  The  season  of  1919  was  so  dry  that  corn 
was  practically  a complete  failure.  The  season  of  1920  was  a good  one 
for  corn.  By  comparing  the  yields  of  these  two  seasons  it  will  be 
seen  that  corn  was  affected  by  the  dry  season  of  1919  much  more  than 
were  the  sorghums.  As  a comparison  between  kafir  and  corn  for  the  two 
years,  kafir  yielded  nearly  four  times  more  grain;  twice  as  much  green 
forage,  and  one-third  more  cured  forage  per  acre.  Kafirs  are  the  best 
among  the  grain  sorghums  tested. 


Table  10. — Yields  in  Seed,  Green  Forage  and  Cured  Forage  oe  Corn,  Grain 
Sorghum  and  Sweet  Sorghum. 

(Cuba,  Crawford  County) 


Crop 

Bushels  of  grain 
per  acre 

Tons  of  green  forage 
per  acre 

Tons  of  cured  forage 
per  acre 

1919 

1920 

Avg. 

1919 

1920 

Avg. 

1919 

1920 

Avg. 

Corn 

1.5 

13.8 

7.7 

0.2 

3.3 

1.8 

0.1 

1.1 

0.6 

Kafir 

22.7 

33.0 

27.9 

0.8 

4.7 

2.8 

0.5 

1.4 

0.9 

Milo 

10.6 

16.9 

13.8 

0.7 

4.7 

2.7 

0.2 

1.2 

0.7 

Feterita 

9.4 

8.7 

9.1 

0.4 

0.8 

0.6 

0.2 

0.3 

0.3 

Sweet  Sorghum 

14.6 

27.9 

21.3 

1.3 

6.9 

4.1 

0.6 

1.3 

0.9 

Table  11. — Yields  in  Cured  Forage  oe  Corn,  Grain  and  Sweet  Sorghum. 
( Warrensburg,  Johnson  County) 


Crop 

Tons  of  cured  forage  per  acre 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Average 

Corn 

2.6 

1.8 

2.6 

2.3 

Kafir 

1.1 

2.7 

3.6 

2.5 

Milo 

1.8 

3.1 

3.0 

2.6 

Feterita 

1.1 

2.2 

2.7 

2.0 

Sweet  Sorghum 

4.4 

4.2 

4.5 

4.4 

Sudan  grass 

2.6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.5 

The  tests  at  both  Columbia  and  Warrensburg  were  conducted  on 
land  better  for  corn  than  the  average  uplands  of  these  two  sections.  At 
Warrensburg  only  forage  yields  were  determined  while  at  Columbia  yields 
of  both  forage  and  grain  were  measured.  Tables  9 and  11  indicate  that  on 
land  of  this  type  sorghums  are  inferior  to  corn  in  yield  of  grain  but  su- 
perior in  forage  yields. 

Based  on  yields  secured  at  the  three  fields,  sweet  sorghums  are  su- 
perior as  a forage  crop  to  either  corn  or  kafir  the  best  of  the  grain  sorg- 
hums. At  Cuba,  sweet  sorghum  yielded  one-third  more  cured  forage  and 
twice  the  green  forage  yielded  by  corn.  At  Columbia  the  yield  of  sweet 
sorghum  in  cured  forage  was  about  equal  to  that  of  grain  sorghum  and 
greater  than  that  of  corn.  In  green  forage  the  tonnage  was  double  that 


18  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 


of  either  grain  sorghum  or  corn.  At  Warrensburg  sweet  sorghum  yields 
in  cured  forage  were  twice  as  large  as  the  yields  of  either  corn  or  sorghum. 

From  results  so  far  secured,  sorghums  are  to  be  recommended  for 
thin  uplands  of  South  Missouri,  growing  the  grain  sorghum  for  a grain 
crop  and  the  sweet  sorghum  for  forage.  The  production  of  corn  should 
be  limited  largely  to  the  first  and  second  creek  and  river  bottomlands  of 
these  sections  and  to  the  more  productive  uplands. 

Where  sorghums  are  grown  for  grain  as  a substitute  for  corn  the  kafirs 
are  preferable  to  feterita  or  milo.  They  make  a better  yield,  ripen  more 
uniformly,  and  shatter  less.  The  milos,  especially  the  dwarf  varieties,  are 
not  easily  harvested.  The  chief  objection  to  feterita  is  its  heavy  produc- 
tion of  suckers  which  results  in  an  unevenly  ripened  crop.  When  allowed 
to  become  over  ripe  feterita  shatters  badly.  Among  the  kafirs,  Standard 
Blackhull,  Sunrise  and  Dawn  are  probably  the  best  varieties  for  Missouri. 

When  the  crop  is  to  be  used  for  forage,  either  green  or  cured,  the 
sweet  sorghums  are  preferable  to  either  corn  or  grain  sorghum.  The 
Amber,  Orange  and  Honey  are  the  best  varieties.  The  varieties  are  named 
in  order  of  their  time  of  maturity. 

CATCH  CROPS  IN  CORN 

The  practice  of  using  any  crop  other  than  rye  as  a catch  crop  in  corn 
is  not  to  be  recommended  except  on  bottom  land  well  supplied  with 
available  moisture.  At  the  last  corn  cultivation,  the  usual  time  of  seeding 
catch  crops  in  corn,  as  rye,  rape,  cowpeas  or  soybeans,  the  weather  is 
usually  dry  and  hot.  The  ground  is  shaded  by  the  corn  and  frequently 
there  is  not  enough  moisture  to  give  uniform  germination  of  the  seed. 
Sufficient  growth  from  the  catch  crop  to  warrant  the  practice,  can  only 
be  secured  in  rare  seasons  when  there  prevails  a period  of  cool  moist 
weather  following  such  planting.  At  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station, 
the  returns  from  broadcasting  soybeans  in  corn  at  . the  last  cultivation 
have  never  been  large  enough  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  the  seed. 

Corn  and  soybeans. — The  planting  of  soybeans  with  corn  is  becoming 
more  popular  each  season.  The  use  of  cowpeas  with  corn  is  an  old  prac- 
tice, especially  over  the  southern  part  of  the  corn  growing  region.  Soy- 
beans give  better  results  because  they  produce  more  seed  and  are  fully 
equal  to  cowpeas  in  yields  of  forage.  Where  soybeans  are  planted  with  corn, 
both  crops  should  always  be  planted  at  the  same  time. 

Corn  and  soybeans  cannot  be  mixed  and  planted  from  the  same  box. 
Soybeans  are  best  planted  with  a pea  and  bean  attachment  on  the  corn 
planter,  which  can  be  secured  for  all  standard  planters.  These  attachments 
are  fixed  to  the  planter  frame  and  deliver  the  seed  from  a separate  box  into 
the  same  dropping  channel  as  that  of  the  corn.  With  this  arrangement 
soybeans  can  be  drilled,  or  dropped  in  the  hill  with  corn  where  the  crop  is 
checked.  The  planter  should  be  set  to  drop  an  average  of  two  soybeans 
for  every  two  to  three  kernels  of  corn.  Four  to  six  pounds  of  soybeans 
are  required  per  acre,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  seed.  When  soy- 
beans are  planted  in  corn,  do  not  plant  too  early  or  too  deep.  Early  and 
deep  planting  often  result  in  poor  stands  of  soybeans. 

Soybeans  are  planted  in  corn  for  pasturing  with  lambs  in  the  stand- 


Field  Methods  that  Increase  the  Corn  Crop 


19 


ing  corn,  for  hogging  both  crops  off  or  for  using  the  combined  crop  for 
silage.  Where  the  combined  crop  is  used  for  silage  some  of  the  beans  may 
shatter.  Much  of  this  loss  can  be  recovered  by  pasturing  the  corn  stubble 
with  hogs. 

The  exact  value  of-hogging  off  corn  and  soybeans,  using  the  soybeans 
as  a substitute  for  tankage  or  other  similar  concentrates,  has  not  been  fully 
determined.  The  Missouri  Experiment  Station  has,  however,  made  a 
study  of  the  effect  of  soybeans  on  the  yield  of  corn  when  the  two  crops 
are  combined. 

Soybeans  planted  in  corn  decrease  the  yield  of  the  corn.  The  amount  of 
decrease  depends  in  general  upon  three  things,  (1)  rate  of  planting  both 


Fig.  3. — Soybeans  in  Corn  Should  be  Seeded  at  the  Same  Time  the  Corn  is  Planted. 


corn  and  soybeans,  (2)  soil  fertility,  and  (3)  relative  amount  of  moisture 
during  the  growing  season.  In  general  a cut  in  the  corn  yield  of  from 
2 to  7 or  8 bushels  per  acre  may  be  expected,  depending  upon  the  degree 
of  one  or  more  of  the  above  conditions.  However,  the  soybeans  may 
themselves  yield  4 or  5 bushels  of  seed,  and  hence  may  abundantly  com- 
pensate for  any  reduction  in  yield  of  corn  which  they  cause.  This  question 
can  be  settled  only  by  direct  feeding  experiments,  which  are  now  being 
conducted  by  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station. 

Corn  and  cowpeas. — The  combination  of  cowpeas  and  corn  is  similar 
in  every  way  to  corn  and  soybean  combinations.  Their  effects  on  corn 


20  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletion  185 


yields  are  also  similar  to  that  of  soybeans.  At  the  Shelbina  field  in  1914 
cowpeas  planted  in  corn  decreased  the  corn  yield  2.24  bushels  per  acre. 
At  the  Morely  field  in  1913  the  decrease  was  6.6  bushels.  On  the  latter 
field  the  soil  is  quite  sandy  and  readily  subject  to  drought. 

Cowpeas  in  corn  will  compare  favorably  with  soybeans  only  when  the 
crop  is  to  be  used  for  silage.  For  other  purposes  soybeans  are  more  sat- 
isfactory. 

Corn  and  rape. — Rape  is  not  well  suited  for  planting  in  corn.  It  is  a 
cool  season  plant  which  gives  its  best  results  from  either  early  spring  or 
late  summer  planting.  Average  corn  planting  time  in  the  spring  is  too  late 
to  sow  rape  for  best  results.  The  practice  of  seeding  rape  in  corn  at  the 
late  cultivation  is,  under  average  conditions  not  practical  because  in  the 
usual  dry,  hot  weather  at  that  time  of  the  year,  the  rape  will  rarely  germ- 
inate and  grow  well.  Considerable  forage  for  late  summer  and  fall  pas- 
ture can  be  secured  by  seeding  rape  along  the  fences  in  the  turning  rows. 


I 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 

630.7M70B  C001 

BULLETIN.  COLUMBIA 
169-185  1920-21 


3 0112  019672192 


